_ 


THE  ORIGIN 

of  the 

TEACHING   BROTHERHOODS 


LC 


UC-NRLF 


I 


17    72M 


BY 


BROTHER  JOHN  J.  SCHUETZ,  S.  M. 


A  DISSERTATION 

Submitted  to  the  Faculty  of  Philosophy  of  the  Catholic  University 

of  America  in  Partial  Fulfillment  of  the  Requirements 

for  the  Degree  of  Doctor  of  Philosophy 


.TON,  D.  C. 


EXCHANGE 


THE  ORIGIN 

of  the 

TEACHING   BROTHERHOODS 


BY 
BROTHER  JOHN  J.  SCHUETZ,  S.  M. 


A  DISSERTATION 

Submitted  to  the  Faculty  of  Philosophy  of  the  Catholic  University 

of  America  in  Partial  Fulfillment  of  the  Requirements 

for  the  Degree  of  Doctor  of  Philosophy 


» » * » * 


WASHINGTON,  D.  C 
1918 


CONTENTS 

INTRODUCTION 

PART  I 

THE  ORIGINAL  TEACHING  BROTHERHOOD. 

Page. 

1.— 1379.  Brothers  of  the  Common  Life 9 

PART  II 

BROTHERHOODS  ORIGINATING  IN  FRANCE. 

1.— 1681.  Brothers  of  the  Christian  Schools 19 

2.— 1702.  Brothers  of  St.  Gabriel 36 

3. — 1709.  Brothers  of  St.  Anthony 43 

4.— 1817.  Brothers  of  Christian  Instruction  of  Ploermel 43 

5.— 1817.  Marist  Brothers  of  the  Schools 52 

6. — 1817.  Brothers  of  the  Society  of  Mary 59 

7.— 1817.  Brothers  of  Christian  Doctrine  of  Nancy 72 

8.— 1820.  Brothers  of  Holy  Cross 72 

9.— 1820.  Brothers  of  the  Cross  of  Jesus 76 

10.— 1821.  Brothers  of  the  Sacred  Heart 76 

11.— 1821.  Brothers  of  Christian  Doctrine  of  Strasburg 79 

12.— 1824.  Brothers  of  St.  Joseph  of  Amiens 79 

13. — 1824.  Brothers  of  the  Holy  Family 80 

14.— 1839.  Brothers  of  St.  Viator 81 

15.— 1842.  Brothers  of  Mercy 84 

16.— 1858.  Brothers  of  the  Holy  Union 84 

PART  III 

THE  COMMUNITIES  OF  IRELAND,  BELGIUM  AND  HOLLAND. 

1.— 1802.  Christian  Brothers  of  Ireland 85 

2. — 1808.  Patrician  Brothers 91 

3.— 1818.  Franciscan  Brothers 92 

4.— 1826.  Presentation  Brothers 93 

5.— 1839.  Xaverian  Brothers 94 

6.— 1844.  Brothers  of  Tilburg 97 

7.— 1849.  Brothers  of  St.  Aloysius 97 

PART  IV 

TEACHING  COMMUNITIES  IN  MISSIONARY  COUNTRIES. 

1.  Brothers  of  Our  Lady  of  the  Annunciation,  (Africa). 

'2.  Brothers  of  St.  Joseph,  (India). 

3.  The  Catechists  of  Anduc,  (West  Cochin-China) . 

4.  The  Teaching  Brothers  of  Our  Lady,  (China). 

5.  Brothers  of  St.  Joseph,  (Ceylon). 

tf.  The  native  Brothers  of  St.  Joseph,  (French  Congo) 98 


387772 


4  CONTENTS 

PART  V 

BROTHERHOODS  INCIDENTALLY  ENGAGED  IN  TEACHING. 

Page 

1. — 1807.  Brothers  of  Charity,  (Belgium). 

2. — 1830.  Brothers  of  Our  Lady  of  Lourdes,  (Holland). 

3.— 1835.  Brothers  of  St.  Joseph,  (Oullins,  France). 

4. — 1839.  Brothers  of  St.  Francis  of  Assisi,  (France). 

5. — 1840.  Brothers  of  the  Immaculate  Conception  and  St.  Vincent  de 
Paul,  (Holland). 

6.— 1845.  Brothers  of  St.  Vincent  de  Paul,  (France). 

7. — 1850.  Brothers  of  St.  Francis  Regis,  (France). 

8.— 1851.  Brothers  of  Our  Lady  of  Seven  Dolors,  (Holland). 

9.— 1855.  Brothers  of  the  Holy  Infancy  and  Youth  of  Jesus,  (U.  S.) . 

10.— 1864.  Brothers  of  St.  Joseph,  (Germany) 99 

Conclusion 100 

Bibliography 102 


INTRODUCTION 

By  the  term  Teaching  Brotherhood  as  herein  employed,  is  under- 
stood a  religious  body  of  men,  either  lay,  or  partly  clerical  and  lay, 
and  who,  first,  ordinarily  take  the  simple  vows  of  religion;  secondly, 
are  designated  by  the  name  of  Brother;  and  thirdly,  assume  as 
special  object  the  education  of  youth. 

The  writer  has  endeavored  to  present  a  detailed  account  of  the 
origin  of  the  different  "Teaching  Brotherhoods"  as  they  appear 
in  the  History  of  the  Church.  He  has,  wherever  possible,  tried  to 
trace  the  foundation  from  the  earliest  conception  in  the  mind  of 
the  founder,  and  to  follow  this  idea  in  its  development  and  final 
realization.  Above  all,  his  endeavor  has  been  to  discover  any 
relations  or  connections  existing  between  the  communities,  especi- 
ally in  regard  to  the  origin  of  their  respective  rules  and  constitu- 
tions. 

These  Brotherhoods  appear  for  the  first  time  during  the  latter 
part  of  the  14th  century,  at  a  time  too,  when  their  existence  is 
absolutely  needed.  The  Church,  it  is  true,  has  always  exercised 
the  greatest  solicitude  for  the  education  of  youth,  which  fact  is 
clearly  evident  in  her  repeated  promulgation  of  decrees  of  different 
councils  and  synodal  enactments  relative  to  this  phase  of  her  mis- 
sion. Her  efforts  too,  in  this  respect,  have  been  nobly  and  gener- 
ously seconded  everywhere  and  at  all  times  by  the  clergy,  as  may 
be  substantiated  by  reliable  documentary  proof.  But,  withal,  a 
time  came  when,  owing  to  increasing  population  and  political 
disturbances,  the  task  of  providing  for  the  proper  instruction  of  the 
young  became  more  and  more  difficult,  and,  as  the  clergy  alone 
could  no  longer  meet  the  demand  made  upon  them,  numerous 
religious  communities  of  laymen  sprang  up  to  aid  in  this  general 
apostolate  of  Christian  education.  Fundamentally,  their  origin 
was  due  to  a  religious  motive,  but,  as  we  cannot  dissociate  educa- 
tion from  religion,  we  may  regard  the  educational  needs  of  the 
time  as  sufficient  reason  for  their  appearance.  Furthermore,  it 
has  been  noticed  that  the  element  of  competition  or  rivalry  cannot 
be  adduced  as  a  cause  for  the  origin  of  a  single  congregation. 
Aside  from  the  purely  religious  or  educational  motive  actuating 
the  individual  founders,  instances  may  be  cited  in  which  some  have, 
with  true  noble-hearted  disinterestedness  not  only  evinced  their 


6  ORIGIN    OF   THE   TEACHING    BROTHERHOODS 

willingness  to  aid  in  the  introduction  and  propagation  of  another 
community,  but  have  actually  taken  steps  to  this  effect.  Not  the 
slightest  trace  of  jealousy,  therefore,  is  discernible  in  any  of  the 
foundations. 

As  will  appear  in  this  study,  a  large  number  of  Teaching  Brother- 
hoods have  sprung  into  existence  in  response  to  the  needs  of  the 
times.  France  especially  has  been  most  productive,  and  far  excels 
Ireland,  Belgium  and  Holland,  which  have  also  contributed  in 
this  respect. 

All  the  Brotherhoods  without  exception  have  been  the  strongest 
advocates  of  popular  education.  The  children  of  the  poor  have 
appealed  to  every  founder,  and  in  many  cases  the  very  endeavor  to 
make  provision  for  their  proper  instruction  has  resulted  in  the 
founding  of  some  Brotherhood.  In  fact,  many  of  the  diocesan 
congregations  were  founded  expressly  for  this  purpose. 

It  is  to  be  emphasized  that  the  Rules  of  St.  de  la  Salle  have 
undoubtedly  served  a  number  of  congregations  as  the  basis  upon 
which  to  frame  their  own  individual  mode  of  life;  but,  apart  from 
this  particular  influence,  each  is  absolutely  independent  of  the 
other.  In  matters  of  internal  government  there  is  no  interde- 
pendence whatever;  each  community  enjoys  its  autonomy  and 
has  its  special  characteristics.  The  only  bond  uniting  them  all  is 
the  common  brotherhood  of  faith  and  the  fundamental  aim  of 
Christian  education  of  youth. 

With  few  exceptions  all  the  Brotherhoods  are  composed  exclu- 
sively of  lay  members.  In  such  as  are  partly  clerical  and  lay, 
generally  the  lay  division  is  the  larger,  and  it  is  furthermore  worthy 
of  mention  that  in  regard  to  these  mixed  congregations  both  classes 
always  form  together  one  corporate  body,  all  the  members  indis- 
criminately being  entitled  to  the  spiritual  privileges  of  the  com- 
munity, as  well  as  to  a  common  share  in  its  administrative  func- 
tions. 

Notice  too  has  been  taken  of  the  fact  that  most  of  the  congrega- 
tions have  been  founded  by  clergymen,  even  those  of  purely  lay 
membership.  In  the  latter  case  it  was  often  stipulated  that  after 
the  death  of  the  founder  the  government  and  direction  of  the  com- 
munity be  taken  over  entirely  by  the  lay  members. 

The  great  majority  of  the  congregations  in  the  first  years  of  their 
origin  were  limited  to  a  narrow  radius  of  activity,  due  not  only  to 
scarcity  of  members,  but  often  also  to  the  action  of  the  State,  which 


INTRODUCTION  7 

either  delayed  the  necessary  legal  authorization,  or  granted  licen- 
ses only  for  a  small  area.  This  was  the  case  particularly  in  France. 
However,  when  once  a  community  obtained  a  legal  status,  its  con- 
sequent expansion  was  greatly  facilitated.  Very  much,  therefore, 
depended  upon  State  recognition.  A  fair  personnel  was  also,  of 
course,  a  necessary  requisite  for  extending  the  work  of  any  particu- 
lar institute.  But,  besides  these  two  conditions  cited,  another  was 
naturally  required,  viz.,  the  demand  for  teachers.  With  these 
prerequisites  secured,  the  expansion  of  any  Brotherhood  was  cer- 
tain. It  has  been  shown  that  nearly  all  the  congregations  have 
gradually  extended  their  activities,  and  that  many  of  them  eventu- 
ally spread  to  foreign  lands,  where  they  often  became  more  pros- 
perous than  in  the  country  of  their  origin. 

Lastly,  it  remains  for  us  to  make  reference  to  the  specific  treat- 
ment of  the  subject.  Only  such  Brotherhoods  have  been  given 
special  attention  with  whom  teaching  is  either  an  exclusive  voca- 
tion, or  at  least  the  chief  aim  and  purpose.  Others  who  teach  but 
incidentally  are  merely  mentioned.  With  but  one  exception  all 
are  still  in  active  service.  At  least  this  is  presumed  as  long  as  there 
is  no  positive  statement  to  the  contrary. 

The  plan  of  procedure  was  to  include  in  the  account  of  each 
Brotherhood — in  so  far  as  the  material  was  available — a  short 
sketch  of  the  founder,  embodying  therein  the  origin  of  the  respec- 
tive congregation,  its  special  sphere  of  educational  activity,  togeth- 
er with  the  mention  of  its  legal  recognition,  the  approval  by  the 
Holy  See,  and  if  possible  a  reference  to  present  statistics. 

The  more  or  less  detailed  treatment  of  the  different  Brotherhoods 
has  been,  of  course,  in  proportion  to  the  amount  of  data  on  hand. 
Two  of  the  congregations,  however,  the  "  Institute  of  the  Brothers 
of  the  Christian  Schools,"  and  the  "Society  of  the  Brothers  of 
Mary,"  have  been  given  more  than  ordinary  space,  the  first  because 
of  its  importance  as  the  leading  community  in  size  and  influence; 
the  second,  particularly  for  the  reason  that  the  writer  himself  is 
one  of  its  members,  and  consequently  had  most  abundant  material 
to  work  with. 

The  congregations  have  been  grouped  together  as  much  as  possi- 
ble under  their  respective  countries,  the  chronological  order  being 
followed  throughout. 

Attention  is  directed  to  the  promiscuous  use  of  the  terms:  con- 
gregation, institute,  community  and  society.  No  specific  dis- 


8  ORIGIN    OF   THE   TEACHING    BROTHERHOODS 

tinction  is  intended  and  a  frequent  interchange  is  therefore  notice- 
able. 

The  sources  for  the  greater  part  of  this  dissertation  have  been 
drawn  directly  from  the  communities  concerned.  Even  in  regard 
to  the  references  in  the  Catholic  Encyclopedia,  for  example,  it  is  to 
be  noted  that  the  articles  therein  contained,  are  almost  invariably 
written  by  members  of  the  respective  congregations,  and,  therefore, 
most  reliable  and  authentic.  The  writer  herewith  also  takes  occa- 
sion to  express  his  deep  appreciation  of  the  kindness  and  generosity 
shown  by  the  superiors  of  the  different  communities  in  furnishing 
the  necessary  material  for  the  present  work. 


PART  I 

THE  ORIGINAL  TEACHING  BROTHERHOOD 


BROTHERS  OF  THE  COMMON  LIFE     (1379) 

Gerard  Groot,  the  learned  and  saintly  founder  of  the  above 
named  Brotherhood,  was  born  at  Deventer,  Netherlands,  in  the 
year  1334  of  wealthy  and  devout  parents.  His  childhood  and  first 
years  of  schooling  were  passed  in  his  home  town,  after  which  he 
was  sent  to  the  University  of  Paris. 

He  made  unusual  progress  in  his  studies,  due  both  to  natural 
talent  and  to  an  almost  insatiable  longing  he  had  for  worldly  honor 
and  fame.1  At  the  age  of  eighteen  he  had  obtained  the  Master's 
degree.  He  remained  at  Paris,  however,  some  years  longer  to 
perfect  himself  in  theology,  and  shortly  afterwards  returned  to 
Deventer.2  But  the  ambitious  young  man  had  higher  intellectual 
aspirations,  and  before  long,  we  again  find  him  at  his  books,  this 
time  at  the  University  of  Prague. 

On  the  completion  of  his  course  he  took  up  his  abode  at  Cologne, 
where  he  had  secured  for  himself  two  canonries,  apparently  not  so 
much  prompted  in  the  acceptance  by  religious  zeal,  but  rather  as  a 
means  of  enhancing  his  own  reputation  and  satisfying  his  desire  for 
public  esteem.  His  manner  of  life  was  not  at  all  in  keeping  with  his 
office.  Thomas  a  Kempis,  his  biographer,  tells  us:  "He  walked  in 
the  broad  ways  of  the  world,  not  being  yet  inspired,  until  by  the 
mercy  of  God  he  was  changed  into  another  man."3 

In  fact,  Divine  Providence  evidently  had  designed  this  soul  to  be 
the  instrument  of  untold  good  in  the  Church,  especially  for  the 
Netherlands  and  Northern  Germany.  Brought  almost  to  death's 
door  by  a  severe  illness,4  Gerard  bethought  himself  of  his  spiritual 
condition  and  signs  of  conversion  very  soon  appeared.  His  com- 
plete transformation  was  accomplished  through  the  instrumentality 
of  one  of  his  intimate  friends  and  school  companions.5  As  he  had 
been  formerly  eager  for  the  praise  and  applause  of  men  he  now 


*A  Kempis,  Thomas,  IAve&  of  Gerard  Groot  and  his  Followers,  trans,  by  J.  P. 
Arthur,  7,  St.  Louis,  1905. 

'Schoengen,  M.  Die  Schule  von  Zwolle,  3,  Freiburg,  Schweiz,  1898. 
3 A  Kempis,  ibid.,  7. 
4Schoengen,  ibid.,  4. 
6A  Kempis,  ibid.,  10. 

9 


10  ORIGIN    OF   THE    TEACHING    BROTHERHOODS 

sought  as  eagerly  to  humble  himself  and  despise  all  worldly  amuse- 
ments and  earthly  glory.  Even  his  profane  studies  in  which  he 
had  always  taken  such  keen  and  all-absorbing  delight,  he  now 
either  entirely  discarded  or  retained  them  only  in  part  and  for 
higher  and  spiritual  motives.  And,  as  a  presumable  guarantee  of 
future  fidelity  to  the  first  impulses  of  grace,  he  withdrew  from  all 
worldly  distractions,  and  within  the  cloistral  walls  of  the  Carthu- 
sian monastery  of  Monichuysen,  set  himself  to  learn  at  the  foot  of 
the  cross,  the  science  of  the  saints. 

It  was  here  that  he  first  imbibed  the  pure  and  unalloyed  sweets 
of  mystic  contemplation.  Here  it  was  too  that,  docile  to  the 
promptings  of  grace  and  the  counsel  of  the  good  monks,  after  having 
received  the  sub-deaconate,6  he  determined  to  enter  upon  a  sort  of 
apostolate,  to  work  for  the  regeneration  of  society. 

That  existing  conditions  afforded  ample  opportunity  for  the 
exercise  of  his  zeal  and  devotedness  in  this  regard  may  be  gleaned 
from  Thomas  a  Kempis,  his  contemporary.  "  At  that  time  partic- 
ularly," says  he,  "the  disposition  of  the  world  seemed  to  be  on  all 
sides  turned  to  evil,  so  that  there  were  few  who  preached  the  Word 
of  Life  both  by  example  and  precept,  and  fewer  still  who  followed 
the  rule  of  continency;  and  this  was  above  all  things  lamentable, 
that  those  who  professed  the  name  of  Holy  Religion  and  the  state 
of  the  Devout  Life  through  lack  of  inspiration  followed  but  lamely 
in  the  footprints  of  the  Fathers  who  had  gone  before."7 

Groot  therefore  devoted  himself  to  missionary  work,  but  with 
wise  and  prudent  forethought  he  soon  realized  that,  if  he  expected 
his  mission  to  be  permanently  successful,  he  would  have  to  gain 
the  clergy.8  Whilst  endeavoring  to  improve  prevailing  conditions 
his  strongest  hope  lay  in  the  rising  generation;  he  purposed  to 
build  up  from  below,  to  labor  incessantly  and  patiently  at  creating 
a  purer,  a  nobler  and  a  more  capable  priesthood,9  a  practice  which 
his  followers  adhered  to  as  one  of  their  chief  concerns.10 

We  notice  that  Groot  acting  in  accordance  with  the  above 
resolve,  before  long  acquaints  himself  with  the  school  authorities 
whenever  and  wherever  it  is  possible,  with  the  double  purpose  of 


6Grube,  Karl,  Gerhard  Groot  und  seine  Stiftungen,  12,  Koeln,  1883. 
7  A  Kempis,  ibid.,  9. 
"Grube,  ibid.,  21. 
9Schoengen,  ibid.,  7. 

10Leitsmann,  E.   Ueberblick  ueber  die  Gesch.  und  Darstellung  der  paedag. 
Wirksamkeit  der  Brueder  des  gem.  Lebens,  56,  Leipzig,  1886. 


BROTHERS    OF   THE    COMMON    LIFE  11 

lending  his  assistance  and  influence  towards  promoting  the  Chris- 
tian education  of  youth,  and  fostering  the  priestly  and  religious 
calling,  as  is  clearly  evidenced  in  his  intimate  relationship  with  the 
schools  of  De venter  and  Zwolle.11 

Slowly  but  certainly  various  forces  began  to  manifest  themselves, 
whose  combined  influence  brought  about  a  common  end  as  planned 
in  the  Divine  economy.  We  thus  perceive  in  the  tendency  of 
Groot  to  interest  himself  in  youth,  one  of  the  prime  factors  in  the 
formation  of  the  institutes  whose  spiritual  father  he  became. 
Furthermore,  by  his  preaching  he  drew  around  him  a  number  of 
souls  both  lay  and  cleric  who  desired  to  place  themselves  under  his 
spiritual  guidance.  Among  these  were  several  elderly  and 
advanced  students,  mostly  clerics,  from  the  city  school,  whom  he 
employed  in  transcribing  for  him  numerous  books  and  manuscripts 
of  a  spiritual  nature.  He  even  invited  these  young  men  to  come 
to  his  house,  an  invitation  which,  as  subsequent  events  proved, 
they  most  readily  accepted.  He  paid  them  for  their  work  but  as 
a  Kempis  says:  "With  Godly  prudence  he  did  not  pay  all  their 
wages  at  one  time,  but  divided  the  money  into  several  portions,  in 
order  that  they  might  often  come."  The  chief  purpose  of  Gerard 
was  to  speak  to  them  the  "Word  of  God — to  win  some  of  these 
writers  to  Christ."12  He  had  unconsciously  prepared  the  ground 
and  planted  the  seed  that  was  soon  to  fructify.  In  this  little  gath- 
ering of  docile  and  devoted  souls  we  recognize  indeed  a  community 
as  it  were  still  in  embryo,  but  which,  by  a  process  of  internal  devel- 
opment and  eventually  by  aid  of  an  external  agency,  suddenly 
burst  forth  as  an  actuality. 

Among  the  most  fervent  disciples  of  Groot  was  one,  Florentius 
Radewin,  who  assisted  in  the  management  of  this  little  group  of 
copyists,  and  even  acted  as  a  substitute  for  his  master  whilst  the 
latter  was  away  on  the  missions.  Florentius  it  was  who,  having 
faithfully  acted  in  this  capacity  for  some  time,  one  day  conceived 
the  idea  of  proposing  to  Gerard  the  feasibility  of  sharing  their 
mutual  profits  and  living  in  common.  "Beloved  master,"  said 
he,  "what  harm  would  it  be  if  I  and  these  clerics,  who  already 
manifest  such  good  will,  put  together  our  weekly  income  and  live 
in  common?"  "In  common,  in  common"!  answered  Gerard. 
"The  mendicants  will  certainly  not  tolerate  it;  with  all  their 


"Schoengen,  ibid.,  17,  82. 
12A  Kempis,  ibid.,  21. 


12  ORIGIN    OF   THE   TEACHING    BROTHERHOODS 

strength  they  will  oppose  it."  "But  what  harm  would  there  be/' 
continued  Florentius,  "if  we  at  least  make  the  attempt?  Perhaps 
God  will  grant  us  success."  After  some  moments  of  reflection 
Gerard  answered:  "In  the  name  of  God  begin.  I  shall  be  your 
defender  and  faithful  protector  against  all  who  shall  try  to  hinder 
or  molest  you  in  your  undertaking."13 

Thus  in  the  year  1379  was  laid  the  foundation  of  the  Institute  of 
the  Brothers  of  the  Common  Life,  an  institute  which,  though  it 
flourished  but  for  a  short  time,  exerted  a  most  powerful  influence 
for  the  educational  and  cultural  uplift  of  society  throughout  the 
whole  of  the  Netherlands  and  Northern  Germany,  an  influence 
indeed  which  far  exceeded  the  most  sanguine  expectations  of  the 
founder. 

Nowhere  in  the  writings  or  sermons  of  Groot  do  we  find  evi- 
dences of  any  intention  on  his  part  to  found  a  religious  community, 
and  from  the  tenor  of  the  above  conversation  with  Florentius  we 
must  conclude  that  the  idea  was  indeed  foreign  to  his  mind.  On 
the  other  hand  though  he  apparently  hesitated  before  giving  his 
consent,  this  could  not  be  construed  as  a  sign  of  weakness  or  of 
opposition  to  the  project;  his  decisive  and  determined  answer 
would  prove  otherwise.  He  was  certainly  aware  of  the  possible 
consequences  of  the  step  taken,  but  with  unflinching  trust  in 
Providence  he  would  begin,  animated  like  another  St.  Paul,  who 
said:  "I  can  do  all  things  in  Him  who  strengtheneth  me."14 

The  task  of  drawing  up  a  body  of  rules  and  regulations  devolved 
upon  Florentius,  everything  being  done  of  course  with  the  advice 
and  approval  of  Gerard.  Among  the  most  distinguishing  charac- 
teristics of  the  new  institute  may  be  mentioned:  "  (1)  community 
life  without  the  religious  vows;  (2)  general  maintenance  of  the 
house  by  individual  labor;  (3)  all  property  to  be  held  in  common; 
(4)  voluntary  obedience  to  one  among  them  chosen  as  superior; 
and  (5)  chief  aim  and  purpose  their  own  personal  sanctification 
and  the  moral  regeneration  of  society."15  Their  main  source  of 
income  was  the  copying  of  books  and  manuscripts. 

As  is  clear  from  the  above,  the  chief  end  and  purpose  of  the 
Brotherhood,  as  originally  conceived,  was  entirely  spiritual;  there 
was  no  provision  made  for  educational  work  strictly  so  called. 


"Grube,  ibid.,  66. 

"Phil.  IV,  13. 

"Recdencyklopaedie,  Herzog,  III  ed.,  Vol.  Ill  478,  Leipzig,  1897. 


BROTHERS   OF   THE    COMMON    LIFE  13 

Both  Groot  and  Florentius  did  indeed  keep  in  close  touch  with  the 
schools,16  and  particularly  did  all  in  their  power  to  improve  condi- 
tions among  the  students  by  providing  for  many  of  them  board 
and  lodging  with  respectable  and  pious  burghers  of  the  town,  their 
purpose  being  to  safeguard  the  virtue  and  morals  of  the  young. 
As  time  went  on  they  were  enabled  to  erect  separate  boarding 
establishments  (Konvikte)  for  their  accommodation,  which  phase 
of  development  tended  more  and  more  towards  inclining  the 
Brothers  to  engage  in  purely  educational  activities. 

Besides  the  community  of  priests,  clerics  and  lay  members, 
Groot  also  had  the  direction  of  a  community  of  pious  women  (Sis- 
ters) who  followed  practically  the  same  mode  of  life  as  that  of  the 
Brothers,  except  that  they  employed  themselves  in  work  more  con- 
genial to  their  sex,  for  example,  in  sewing,  spinning,  weaving, 
etc."17 

The  kind  of  life  adopted  by  the  Brothers  was  not  altogether  a 
novelty  in  their  day.  Similar  communities  existed  throughout  the 
country,  such  as  the  Beghards  and  Beguines,  of  men  and  women 
respectively,  whose  purpose  was  to  lead  a  pious  and  more  or  less 
retired  life.  They  were  semi-monastic  institutions  having  no 
binding  vows  nor  strictly  religious  rule;  each  house  was  an  inde- 
pendent community.  Having  no  general  superior  however,  and 
subject  to  no  particular  ecclesiastical  authority,  they  gradually 
lost  the  religious  spirit,  fell  into  error,  and  eventually  some  of  the 
houses  were  closed  for  a  time  and  others  were  even  condemned.18 

That  these  institutions  influenced  Groot  and  Florentius  in  regard 
to  the  rules  and  regulations  drawn  up  for  the  Brothers,  seems  very 
probable  judging  from  the  characteristic  traits  above  mentioned. 
The  Brother-houses  newly  founded,  though  they  conformed  to  the 
general  regulations,  had  in  certain  particulars  their  own  self- 
government.  Later  the  practice  was  introduced  to  hold  regular 
annual  meetings  of  the  rectors  of  the  different  communities,  to 
guarantee  general  conformity  to  the  basic  statutes  of  the  congre- 
gation, and  secure  unity  and  cooperation.19 

As  the  community  of  Deventer  increased  and  developed,  Groot, 
aware  of  the  danger  of  attack  by  the  evil-minded  and  the  suspici- 
ous, determined  to  forestall  any  such  movement  by  placing  his 

"Schoengen,  ibid.,  12,  26  ff,  and  a  Kempis,  ibid.,  134. 
17Grube,  ibid.,  76. 

Catholic  Encyclopedia,  Vol.  II,  389,  New  York,  1907-12. 
'•Realencyklopaedic,  ibid.,  502,  and  Leitsmann,  ibid.,  9. 


14  ORIGIN   OF   THE   TEACHING    BROTHERHOODS 

institute  under  the  protection  of  some  powerful  religious  order. 
After  due  deliberation  and  particularly  through  the  influence  of  his 
intimate  friend  and  counsellor,  Blessed  John  Ruysbroeck,  prior  of 
the  monastery  of  Canons  Regular  at  Groenendael,  near  Brussels, 
he  decided  to  found  a  house  of  the  Canons  Regular  of  St.  Augus- 
tine.20 But  before  the  project  could  be  realized  he  was  called  to 
his  reward,  falling  a  victim  to  the  plague  in  the  year  1384,  at  the 
early  age  of  forty-four. 

Florentius  thenceforth  took  the  work  in  hand,  but  it  was  only 
after  two  years,  in  1386,  that  he  succeeded  in  establishing  the  first 
house  of  Regulars  near  Windesheim,  about  twenty  miles  from 
De venter,  and  which,  in  time,  became  the  mother-house  of  the 
famous  Windesheim  congregation.  Its  first  members  were 
Brothers  selected  from  the  community  of  Deventer,  among  which 
number  was  one  named  John  Haemerken,  the  brother  of  Thomas 
a  Kempis.  The  latter  himself,  during  the  seven  years  that  he 
attended  the  public  school  at  Deventer,21  was  under  the  spiritual 
direction  of  Florentius,  and  in  time  also  became  one  of  the  Broth- 
ers. After  about  a  year22  he  joined  his  brother  as  Canon  Regular, 
and  for  seventy  years  sought  by  labor  and  prayer  to  exemplify  in 
his  own  life  what  he  so  admirably  expresses  in  his  incomparable 
little  work  "De  Imitatione  Christi." 

Gerard  Groot  had  thus  founded  two  separate  institutes,  one,  the 
Brothers  and  Sisters  of  Common  Life,  and  the  other,  the  Canons 
Regular  of  St.  Augustine.  Both  may  be  regarded  as  concrete 
embodiments  of  the  spiritual  revival  originally  set  on  foot  by 
Groot,  and  commonly  known  as  "The  New  Devotion."  Winde- 
sheim confined  its  activities  to  the  restoration  of  monastic  disci- 
pline, the  strict  observance  of  the  vows  and  rules  in  religious 
communities:  the  Brothers,  by  nature  of  their  rule  being  more  at 
liberty  in  their  intercourse  with  the  public,  directed  their  activities 
especially  along  cultural  and  eventually  also  along  educational 
lines. 

Florentius  was  regarded  as  superior  of  both  branches,23  but  after 
his  death,  in  1400,  Windesheim  became  the  mother-house,  and  its 
prior,  the  superior  general  of  all  the  disciples  of  Gerard  Groot. 


20A  Kempis,  ibid.,  45. 

"Scully,  Dom  Vincent,  Life  of  Thomas  b  Kempi*,  25,  N.  Y.,  1901. 

aA  Kempis,  ibid.,  257. 

MGrube,  ibid.,  87. 


BROTHERS   OF  THE   COMMON    LIFE  15 

It  shall  be  our  purpose  henceforth  to  restrict  our  treatment  to  a 
consideration  of  the  Brothers,  in  order  to  indicate  the  causes  that 
gradually  led  them  to  accept  purely  educational  work.  It  may  be 
well,  however,  first  to  point  out  to  what  extent  the  Brotherhood 
was  acknowledged  and  approved  by  the  Church  authorities. 

A  formal  bull  of  canonical  approbation,  as  far  as  known,  was 
never  issued,  but  we  know  that  a1\the  Council  of  Constance 
(1414-1418),  the  Brothers  were  given  spe>eiaj^attention  and  consid- 
eration as  the  result  of  accusations  brought  forwarthby  a  Domini- 
can Friar,  Mathew  Grabo,  who  had  written  a  book  against  the 
followers  of  the  "New  Devotion."  The  Canons  of  Windesheim 
took  up  the  defense,  and  the  unanimous  verdict  of  the  assembled 
prelates  was  a  glorious  vindication  and  an  unqualified  approval  of 
the  life  and  practices  of  the  Brothers  and  their  associates.  Among 
their  stanchest  supporters  were  many  distinguished  church  digni- 
taries, notably,  John  Gerson,  Chancellor  of  the  University  of  Paris, 
and  Peter  d'Ailly.24  Furthermore,  in  the  decision  of  the  Council 
was  implied  the  approval  of  the  Holy  See,  as  the  proceedings  were 
held  under  the  immediate  and  personal  direction  of  the  newly 
elected  pontiff,  Martin  V.  His  successor,  Eugene  IV  (1431-1447) , 
also  virtually  sanctioned  the  mode  of  life  of  the  Brothers  in  so  far 
as  he  took  them  under  his  protection.26  Indeed  there  is  no  dearth 
of  instances  to  prove  that  the  Brotherhood  was  held  in  highest 
esteem  by  the  ecclesiastical  authorities. 

Hence,  in  the  face  of  these  repeated  manifestations  of  sanction 
and  commendation,  the  charges  brought  against  the  Brothers  that 
they  were  forerunners  of  the  Protestant  Reformation,  are  utterly 
unfounded.  That  during  the  Reformation  certain  individual 
members  turned  over  to  Protestantism,  may  have  been  possible, 
but  on  the  other  hand,  it  is  admitted  even  by  Protestant  writers 
of  recognized  authority,  that  the  Brotherhood  as  a  whole  remained 
loyal  to  the  Church.26  As  to  the  causes  of  its  dismemberment  and 
final  dissolution  there  are  ample  and  justifiable  grounds  of  de- 
fence, for  example,  (1)  the  invention  of  printing,  which  eventually 


^Scully,  ibid.,  143  ff,  and  cf.  Leitsmann,  ibid.,  35. 

*Gieseler,  J.  C.  I.,  Text-book  of  Eccl  Hist.,  Vol.  Ill,  305,  Phil.  1836.  Also 
cf .  bull  addressed  by  Pope  Eugene  IV  to  all  the  bishops  of  Germany  relative 
to  the  various  regular  fraternities,  among  which  certainly  the  Brothers  of 
Common  Life  were  included.  The  bull  referred  to,  however,  was  not  to  be 
considered  as  confirming  the  state  of  the  Brothers  as  a  religious  congregation, 
("statum  praedictorum,  ut  ordinem  religionis  approbatae"). 

*Leitsmann,  ibid.,  27,  54,  and  Realencyklopaedie,  ibid.,  505  ff. 


16  ORIGIN    OF   THE    TEACHING    BROTHERHOODS 

did  away  with  the  copying  of  books  and  manuscripts,  till  then  the 
chief  source  of  revenue  for  the  Brothers;  (2)  the  founding  of  educa- 
tional institutions  similar  to  theirs  in  which  very  often  some  of 
their  pupils  successfully  competed  with  them;  and  (3)  the  intro- 
duction of  the  Jesuits  whose  schools  became  more  and  more  popular 
at  the  expense  of  those  of  the  Brothers.27 

We  shall  now  endeavor  to  trace  the  development  of  the  institute 
in  regard  to  teaching  and  the  management  of  schools.  Groot  and 
Florentius,  though  exceptionally  brilliant  men  and  well  versed  in 
the  learning  of  the  day,  considered  educational  work  as  secondary 
in  comparison  with  heavenly  wisdom  and  personal  sanctification. 
Their  followers  were  to  be  imbued  with  the  same  religious  senti- 
ments. 

Besides  this  purpose,  however,  there  was  the  other  of  almost 
equal  importance,  viz.,  the  reformation  and  regeneration  of  society. 
And,  as  has  already  been  touched  upon,  both  Groot  and  Florentius 
realized  that  one  of  the  best  and  quickest  means  of  attaining  this 
end  would  be  to  gain  the  young.  Accordingly  the  Brothers,  after 
the  example  of  their  founders,  adopted  the  practice  of  immediately 
establishing  relations  with  the  schools  wherever  they  located. 
Many  of  the  students  attending  these  schools  came  from  afar  and 
consequently  they  boarded  out  wherever  they  could  find  accommo- 
dations. The  Brothers  tried  to  meet  this  need  by  erecting  board- 
ing establishments  in  some  of  the  cities.  Some  schools  had  two, 
three,  and  at  times  even  five  of  these  institutions.28 

They  were  intended  to  provide  besides  board  and  lodging  suita- 
ble religious  instruction,  which,  in  conjunction  with  the  prevailing 
discipline,  afforded  the  young  men  an  excellent  moral  and  religious 
formation.  It  is  even  probable  that  during  times  of  the  plague, 
when  the  schools  were  temporarily  closed,  the  Brothers  in  charge 
devoted  themselves  more  and  more  to  general  instruction.29 

Later  on  towards  the  middle  of  the  15th  century,  when  Human- 
ism appeared  in  the  North,  we  notice  a  marked  influence  in  all 
educational  circles.  The  Brotherhood  too  was  powerfully  affected. 
The  humanistic  influence  was  felt  within  the  commnnities  by  a 
more  liberal  pursuance  of  literary  and  classical  studies,30  the 


"Arthur,  J.  P.,  Introduction  to  &  Kempis's  Lives,  xl. 
28Schoengen,  ibid.,  22. 

29Gem,  S.  H.,  Hidden  Saints,  113,  London,  1907. 
30Leitsmann,  ibid.,  54. 


BROTHERS    OF   THE   COMMON    LIFE  17 

Brothers  in  turn  being  reckoned  before  long  among  the  strongest 
advocates  of  the  Renaissance  movement  in  Northern  Europe.31 

About  this  time  also  we  find  the  community  taking  a  more  direct 
and  active  part  in  school  affairs;  here  and  there  a  Brother  is 
furnished  as  assistant  in  the  city  school,  or  acts  in  the  capacity  of 
principal.  Finally,  communities  are  founded  with  the  express 
purpose  of  organizing  schools  over  which  the  Brothers  have  full 
control,  like  those  of  Herzogenbusch  and  Liege.32 

This  last  phase  of  educational  activity  unquestionably  places 
the  Brotherhood  within  the  category  of  teaching  communities,  and 
in  its  one  hundred  and  fifty  years  of  existence  it  has  indeed  most 
honorably  and  nobly  fulfilled  the  mission  it  was  destined  to  accom- 
plish for  the  glory  of  God  and  the  good  of  religion. 

"McCormick,  P.  J.,  History  of  Education,  184,  Washington,  D.  C.,  1915. 
^Heimbucher,  M.,  Die  Orden  und  Kongregationen  der  Kaiholischen  Kirche, 
Bd.  Ill,  408,  Paderborn,  1908. 


PART  II 
BROTHERHOODS  ORIGINATING  IN  FRANCE 


BROTHERS  OF  THE  CHRISTIAN  SCHOOLS     (1681) 

As  a  fitting  prelude  to  our  treatment  of  the  disciples  of  St.  John 
Baptist  de  la  Salle  it  may  be  well  to  sketch  in  brief  the  educational 
status  of  the  times  just  previous  to  the  foundation  of  the  institute. 

It  is  a  fact  borne  out  by  very  reliable  documentary  evidence  that 
schools  existed  everywhere  in  Christian  Europe  as  regards  both 
elementary  and  secondary  education.  Of  the  two,  the  secondary 
schools  seem  at  this  period  to  have  been  better  attended  to  as  a 
whole,  since  they  appealed  more  readily  to  the  clergy,  who  were,  of 
course,  the  leading  authorities  in  educational  matters.  Thus, 
universities  were  to  be  found  in  every  country  of  Europe,  eighty- 
one  already  being  in  flourishing  condition  before  the  Protestant 
Reformation.33  Colleges  and  higher  schools  were  likewise  estab- 
lished everywhere,  for  example,  those  of  the  Jesuits,  whose  special 
mission  was  in  fact  to  meet  this  particular  need.34  In  regard  to 
elementary  education,  though,  in  accordance  with  and  in  response 
to  provincial  decrees,  laws  and  regulations,  there  were  schools 
existing  in  almost  every  parish,35  the  crying  need  of  the  17th  cen- 
tury was  competent  and  exemplary  teachers,36  particularly  laymen. 
As  an  instance  of  the  foregoing  may  be  cited  the  declaration  of 
M.  Damia,  the  director  of  the  schools  in  Lyons,  France,  about  the 
year  1670.  He  says:  "The  greater  number  of  mistresses  are 
ignorant  not  only  of  the  best  method  of  reading  and  writing,  but 
of  the  very  principles  of  religion;  amongst  the  masters  there  are 
heretics,  impious  men  who  have  followed  infamous  callings,  and 
under  whose  guidance  the  young  are  in  evident  danger  of  being 
lost"37  Again,  in  a  pastoral  letter  of  the  bishop  of  Angers  for  the 

"McCormick,  ibid.,  134. 

"Schwickerath,  R.  Jexuit  Education,  105,  St.  Louis,  1903.  (The  institu- 
tions of  learning  conducted  by  the  Jesuits  at  the  end  of  the  seventeenth  cen- 
tury numbered  769,  ibid.,  145.) 

"Cf.  Rayelet,  Armand,  Blessed  John  Baptist  de  la  SaUe,  66,  67.  Paris, 
1888;  Allain,  L'Abbe\  L 'instruction  primaire  en  France  avant  la  Revolution. 
49  ff,  55-59,  63,  70,  79  ff,  Paris,  1881;  Buisson  F.,  Dictionnaire  de  Pedagogic, 
1766,  Paris,  1886. 

*Ravelet,  ibid.,  70. 

"Ibid.,  72. 

19 


20  ORIGIN   OF   THE   TEACHING    BROTHERHOODS 

year  1668,  we  have  a  seemingly  fair  estimate  of  the  character  of  the 
schoolmasters  of  the  time:  "We  have  the  consolation  of  possessing 
primary  schools  in  many  parishes  where  the  masters  and  mistresses 
do  a  great  deal  of  good  by  the  teaching  they  give  the  children;  but 
we  have  also  the  pain  of  seeing  many  in  other  places  who  are  of 
hardly  any  use  for  their  salvation.  These  teachers  content  them- 
selves with  merely  showing  the  children  how  to  read/'38 

The  cause  of  this  apparently  deplorable  condition  was  the  lack  of 
trained  teachers.  Evidently  a  reform  was  needed,  and  we  notice 
before  long  noble  self-sacrificing  efforts  being  made  to  supply 
teachers  properly  qualified  for  their  profession.  It  was  a  task 
reserved  for  the  religious  congregations,  and  indeed,  they  alone 
proved  themselves  able  to  cope  with  the  difficulty. 

Numerous  congregations  of  women  devoting  themselves  to  ele- 
mentary education,  sprang  into  existence  during  the  17th  and  18th 
centuries,  France  alone  producing  fifty  Sisterhoods  within  less  than 
a  hundred  and  fifty  years.39  But  the  like  could  not  be  said  of  men 
devoted  to  the  same  cause.  Repeated  attempts  at  organizing 
teaching-bodies  of  men,  consecrated  to  the  interests  of  popular 
education,  had  been  made  in  France,  but  without  avail. 

We  have  seen  in  the  foregoing  chapter  the  noble  undertaking  of 
Groot  and  his  followers.  Elementary  education  constituted  a  very 
important  phase  of  their  educational  work,  and  their  particular 
solicitude  for  the  poorer  children  was  one  of  their  special  character- 
istics. It  is  very  probable  too,  that  their  schools  must  have  served 
as  models  to  later  teaching  communities,  for  in  the  opinion  of 
Ravelet,  Groot  had  " sketched  out  the  work  of  St.  de  la  Salle."40 

In  1597,  St.  John  Calasanctius  organized  in  Rome  public  free 
schools  for  the  instruction  of  poor  and  ignorant  children.  The 
teachers  were  gathered  chiefly  from  among  the  clergy,  and  the 
organization  became  known  as  the  Order  of  Piarists.  Their 
schools,  which  at  first  were  apparently  opened  exclusively  to  the 
poor  and  confined  to  primary  education,  in  time  included  also 
secondary  training.  They  became,  in  fact,  colleges. 

About  this  time  too  (1593),  the  Yen.  Cesar  de  Bus  founded  in  the 
diocese  of  Avignon  the  Fathers  of  Christian  Doctrine  (Peres  de  la 
Doctrine  Chretienne),  for  the  instruction  of  youth.  Their  schools 


"Ibid.,  75. 
39Ibid.,  76,  ff. 
84. 


BROTHERS    OF   THE    CHRISTIAN    SCHOOLS  21 

were  free  and  flourished  especially  in  Southern  France.  But 
eventually  they  also  developed  into  higher  schools  and  colleges.41 

The  aforementioned  M.  Demia  in  1664,  whilst  inspector- 
general  of  schools  in  the  diocese  of  Lyons,  conceived  a  project  of 
forming  a  teaching-body  of  men  and  women,  respectively  known 
as  Brothers  and  Sisters  of  St.  Charles.  It  was  the  wish  of  abbe 
Demia  to  have  only  priests  as  schoolmasters,  and  accordingly  he 
founded,  at  his  own  expense,  a  seminary  in  which  young  men  were 
to  be  trained  for  both  the  office  of  curate  and  that  of  primary 
school-teacher.  Gradually,  however,  this  institution  assumed  the 
character  of  an  ordinary  seminary,  and  only  the  community  of 
Sisters,  which  had  been  founded  for  the  education  of  girls,  survived, 
and  is  still  flourishing.42 

It  may  be  asked  whether  any  attempt  had  been  made  at  found- 
ing purely  congregations  of  laymen  previous  to  that  of  St.  de  la 
Salle,  and  devoted  solely  to  primary  education. 

St.  Peter  Fourier  (1565-1640)  founded  in  1598  the  Congregation 
of  Notre  Dame,  for  the  education  of  poor  girls.  He  likewise 
formed  a  community  of  men  to  teach  the  poor  boys  of  the  city  and 
villages.  But  the  latter  proved  a  failure.  He  could  not  get  it 
approved  in  Rome,  and  the  young  men  whom  he  had  gathered 
together,  left  him  and  returned  to  the  world.43 

In  1652  and  about  1660  similar  projects  were  undertaken,  but 
results  did  not  meet  expectations;  the  work  would  not  spread. 

At  Rouen,  Rev.  Nicholas  Barre  a  religious  of  the  order  of 
Minims,  founded  in  1678  the  Congregation  of  the  Ladies  of  St. 
Maur  (Sceurs  de  I' instruction  charitable  du  St.  Enfant  Jesus,  dites  de 
St.  Maur),  for  the  teaching  of  poor  girls.  This  proving  successful 
he  decided  to  open  a  seminary  for  the  training  of  schoolmasters. 
The  congregations  were  respectively  known  as  the  Brothers  and 
Sisters  of  the  Christian  and  Charitable  Schools  of  the  Child  Jesus. 
Both  branches  lived  in  community,  and,  although  no  vows  were 
taken,  they  followed  to  some  extent  a  mode  of  life  similar  to  that 
of  professed  religious.  Everything  looked  bright  and  hopeful  at 
the  start,  but  before  long  the  young  men  became  self-conceited  and 
finally  ended  in  abandoning  the  work  altogether.  The  Sisterhood, 
however,  continued.44 

"Ibid.,  85. 
<2Ibid.,  87. 
"Ibid.,  90. 

"H61yot,  R.  P.  &  Badiche,  Dictionnaire  des  Ordres  Religieux  t.  II,  122  (col- 
lection Migne)  Paris,  1847;  Heimbucher,  ibid.,  298,  549. 


22  ORIGIN    OF   THE   TEACHING   BROTHERHOODS 

In  the  above  enumeration  we  notice  that  there  was  certainly  no 
lack  of  earnest  and  noble-hearted  endeavor  to  meet  the  educa- 
tional needs  of  the  times.  The  founders  in  question  must  have 
fully  realized  the  absolute  necessity  of  a  reform  in  elementary 
education,  and  surely  they  spared  no  pains  in  employing  every 
means  in  their  power  to  secure  proper  educational  advantages  for 
the  young,  especially  the  poor  and  neglected. 

These  men  were,  one  and  all,  prompted  by  generous  and  disin- 
terested motives,  an  evidence  of  which  is  the  fact  that,  in  most  of 
the  projected  foundations,  instruction  was  to  be  gratuitous. 
This  was  entirely  in  accord  with  the  earnest  desire  of  the  Church, 
which  had  at  different  times  in  the  past,  insistently  advocated  free 
elementary  education.45 

All  things  considered,  therefore,  it  is  surprising  that  the  provi- 
sions made  for  schoolmasters,  should  have  resulted  in  such  singular 
failure.  Viewing  the  matter,  however,  in  the  light  of  later  events, 
it  would  seem  that  the  unsuccessful  efforts  made,  providentially 
served  as  a  preparation  for  the  great  work  to  be  accomplished  by 
the  one  whom  the  Lord  had  preordained.  It  was  reserved  for  St. 
John  Baptist  de  la  Salle  to  bring  to  a  successful  issue  what  the 
others  could  not. accomplish.  By  his  genius  and  cooperation  with 
Providence  he  inaugurated  the  reform  which  was  to  revolutionize 
modern  popular  education,  not  only  in  France  but  throughout  the 
world.  It  was  by  means  of  the  great  body  of  teachers,  of  which  he 
was  the  founder,  that  he  was  enabled  to  achieve  his  grand  purpose 
of  raising  the  educational  standards  of  the  lower  classes  of  society, 
by  teaching  children  gratuitously,  with  special  preference  for  the 
poor.46 

In  the  following  pages  a  short  account  is  given  of  the  life  of  de  la 
Salle  together  with  the  origin  of  his  institute. 

The  Saint  was  born  at  Reims  April  30,  1651.  From  early  youth 
he  manifested  a  deep  piety  and  great  contempt  for  the  world. 
Besides  he  was  gifted  with  keen  intelligence,  remarkable  discern- 
ment and  judgment,  all  which  clearly  presaged  a  very  promising 
future. 


KX.  Migne,  Pat.  Lot.  cv.  196;  Wilkins,  Concilia  Magnae  Brittaniae  et 
Hiberniae  i,  270,  Londini,  1737;  Leach,  A.  F.,  Educational  Charters  and  Docu- 
ments 39,  Cambridge,  1911;  Mansi,  Collectio  Amplissima  ConcUiorum.  Tit. 
5,  Cap.  1.  Parisiis,  1901. 

«Cf.  Rides  of  the  Brothers  of  the  Christian  Schools— Bull  of  approbation— V, 
Paris,  1905. 


BROTHERS    OF   THE    CHRISTIAN    SCHOOLS  23 

When  about  eight  years  of  age  he  was  sent  to  the  University  of 
Reims,  and  very  soon  made  such  progress  in  his  studies  as  to  win 
the  admiration  of  all  his  teachers.  His  conduct  too  was  most 
edifying. 

At  the  time  of  his  First  Communion  he  manifested  a  special 
inclination  towards  the  ecclesiastical  state,  and  as  his  parents 
would  not  in  the  least  interfere  with  his  vocation,  he  received  the 
tonsure  March  11,  1662.47 

On  January  17,  1667,  he  was  favored  with  an  appointment  as 
canon  of  the  Chapter  of  Reims,  a  most  exceptional  privilege  indeed 
for  a  young  man  who  had  not  yet  attained  his  sixteenth  year. 

The  position,  entajled  many  arduous  duties,  but  he  still  managed 
to  continue  his  studieX.at  the  university,  and  in  1669  obtained  the 
degree  of  Master  of  Arts.  The  doctorate  was  to  follow  later. 

In  1670,  he  entered  the  seminary  of  Saint-Sulpice,  Paris,  to 
study  for  the  priesthood.  His  parents  died,  however,  after  about 
a  year  and  a  half,  and  de  la  Salle,  being  the  oldest  of  a  family  of  six 
children,  was  accordingly  obliged  to  interrupt  his  studies  and 
return  home  to  take  over  the  management  of  the  household.48 

For  six  years  he  was  faithful  to  his  trust,  all  the  while  uncon- 
sciously acquiring  that  experience  and  skill  which  later  proved  so 
helpful  to  him  as  founder  and  organizer.  As  his  own  counsellor 
and  director,  he  chose  one  among  the  canons  of  the  cathedral, 
Nicolas  Roland,  priest  and  theologian,  noted  for  his  great  virtue 
and  experience.  In  any  serious  difficulty  de  la  Salle  always  had 
recourse  to  his  friend,  and  there  grew  up  between  them  an  inti- 
macy which  had  its  influence  in  shaping  subsequent  events  regard- 
ing the  Brotherhood. 

M.  Roland,  like  many  of  his  contemporaries,  had  resolved  to 
devote  himself  exclusively  to  the  education  of  youth,  particularly 
in  founding  free  schools  for  girls.  To  provide  teachers  for  the 
work  he  solicited  and  secured  the  cooperation  of  Father  Barre". 
The  latter  sent  M.  Roland  two  or  three  Sisters,  who,  in  addition  to 
several  pious  young  women,  formed  a  community  which  took  the 
name  of  Sisters  of  the  Child  Jesus  (Sceurs  de  l'Enfant-J6sus).49 
The  Sisters  rapidly  increased  in  numbers  and  the  good  work  they 
accomplished  in  Reims  attracted  general  attention. 


"Annales  de  I'lnstitut  de*  Freres  des  Gcoles  chretiennes,  t.  i.,  3,  (1679-1719) 
Paris,  1882. 

«"Cf.  Ravelet,  ibid.,  119. 
"Heimbucher,  ibid.,  299,  549. 


24  ORIGIN   OF   THE   TEACHING   BROTHERHOODS 

But  with  progress  also  came  trials,  contradictions  and  oppres- 
sions from  both  civil  and  ecclesiastical  authorities.  The  little 
community  could  not  secure  legal  recognition.  M.  Roland's 
health  too,  was  poor,  and  to  safeguard  the  very  existence  of  his 
undertaking,  he  looked  about  for  one  to  whom  he  could  entrust 
its  interests  in  case  he  should  die.  He  appealed  to  St.  de  la  Salle, 
and  endeavored  to  awaken  within  him  the  same  sentiments  of  zeal 
and  ardor  for  this  kind  of  work  which  animated  his  own  soul.  Nor 
were  his  overtures  fruitless.  De  la  Salle,  on  his  part,  also  tenderly 
loved  little  children,  in  imitation  of  Jesus  his  Divine  Master.  And 
when  in  April,  1678,  M.  Roland  fell  seriously  ill,  and  death  seemed 
imminent,  he  appointed  de  la  Salle  as  his  executor,  and  prevailed 
upon  him  to  take  care  of  his  community  of  Sisters.50 

M.  Roland  died,  and  thus  de  la  Salle  became  director  of  the  con- 
gregation. He  was  now  a  priest,  having  been  ordained  two  weeks 
before  the  death  of  his  friend.  He  had  faithfully  pursued  his 
theological  studies  at  the  University  of  Reims  with  this  end  in 
view,  all  during  the  years  that  he  looked  after  the  interests  of  his 
brothers  and  sisters.  Now,  in  compliance  with  the  dying  wish  of 
his  former  director,  he  had  taken  upon  himself  another  responsi- 
bility, which,  though  not  very  much  according  to  his  natural  incli- 
nations, he  would  nevertheless  try  to  meet  honorably. 

Within  a  year  the  community  was  established  on  a  firm  and 
secure  basis,  put  in  possession  of  all  legal  rights,  and  placed  under 
the  guardianship  of  a  priest  who  acted  in  the  capacity  of  sole 
administrator. 

De  la  Salle  had  accomplished  his  work  of  charity,  and  he  with- 
drew to  follow  in  quiet  his  habitual  form  of  life.  He  could  not, 
however,  resist  the  grace  of  God,  and  he  found  himself  being  drawn 
more  and  more  towards  taking  interest  in  the  education  of  youth. 
His  acquaintance  with  M.  Roland  and  especially  his  work  in  con- 
nection with  the  Sisters,  evidently  influenced  his  tastes  and  inclina- 
tions. We  could  regard  this  as  the  initial  stage  in  the  develop- 
ment of  his  vocation  as  religious  founder.  The  next  advance 
involves  a  rather  complicated  process.  Various  influences,  which, 
in  the  beginning  seemed  to  act  independently,  are  brought  finally 
to  converge  towards  a  common  end,  namely,  the  systematic  estab- 
lishment of  the  Institute  of  the  Christian  Schools.  We  shall  now 
endeavor  to  trace  the  process  of  this  development. 


60Ravelet,  ibid.,  126. 


BROTHERS   OF   THE   CHRISTIAN   SCHOOLS  25 

Among  the  educational  movements,  besides  that  of  M.  Roland, 
which  just  at  this  time  attracted  general  attention,  was  the  one 
inaugurated  by  Father  Barre,  already  referred  to.  The  latter 
was  well  known  as  a  missionary,  and  as  a  man  of  consummate 
wisdom  and  eminent  virtue.  His  success  at  Rouen  was  greatly 
due  to  the  noble  generosity  and  active  zeal  of  Madame  de  Maillefer, 
a  lady  of  great  wealth  who,  by  a  singular  grace  of  God,  had  been 
converted  from  a  life  of  vanity  and  pleasure  to  one  of  penance  and 
devotion  to  works  of  charity.51  She  was  a  native  of  Reims,  and  a 
relative  of  de  la  Salle.62  According  to  the  Divine  will,  she  was 
to  provide  the  first  means  for  the  establishment  and  maintenance 
of  the  Christian  Schools.  To  her,  indeed,  is  credited  the  honor  of 
being  the  immediate  cause  of  the  great  life-work  of  de  la  Salle. 

Madame  de  Maillefer  was  living  in  Rouen  at  the  time  Father 
Barre*  founded  his  schools  there.  His  success  inspired  her  to  assist 
in  establishing  schools  also  in  her  own  native  city  of  Reims.  And, 
as  she  contributed  so  liberally  to  founding  schools  for  girls,  she 
desired  to  do  the  same  for  boys.  To  this  effect  she  sought  the 
cooperation  of  M.  Roland  whom  she  incidentally  met  on  one  of  his 
visits  to  Rouen.  He  fully  accorded  with  her  idea,  but  death  inter- 
vened and  seemingly  put  an  end  to  the  project. 

Madame  de  Maillefer,  however,  was  not  to  be  diverted  from 
carrying  out  her  resolution.  Nor  was  she  obliged  to  wait  very  long 
before  an  opportunity  for  the  exercise  of  her  zeal  presented  itself. 

A  pious  layman  then  living  in  Rouen,  named  Adrian  Nyel,  had 
already  for  some  time,  more  or  less,  interested  himself  in  educa- 
tional matters.  He  was  commissioned  by  the  city  hospital  author- 
ities to  give  instruction  in  Christian  doctrine  to  the  young  men  of 
the  establishment,  and  also  teach  them  reading  and  writing.  In 
time,  he  extended  his  activities,  and  included  a  certain  class  of 
children.  He  even  persuaded  a  number  of  fellow  laymen,  despite 
the  meagre  remuneration  received,  to  enlist  in  the  same  good  cause. 

The  little  group  called  themselves  Brothers,  though  apparently 
they  did  not  at  first  live  in  community.  They  made  no  vows. 
Their  actuating  motives  were  simply  piety  and  love  for  the  work. 
We  cannot,  however,  fail  to  recognize  in  this  pious  association  the 
nucleus  of  the  future  Brotherhood. 


51Ibid.,  1:10 
"Ibid.,  135. 


26  ORIGIN    OF   THE    TEACHING    BROTHERHOODS 

As  soon  as  Madame  de  Maillefer  therefore  heard  about  M.  Nyel 
and  his  work,  she  hastened  to  propose  to  him  her  intentions.  He 
accepted  her  offer,  and  agreed  to  set  out  for  Reims  at  once.  She 
promised  him  the  necessary  financial  assistance,  and  before  his 
departure,  gave  him  letters  of  introduction,  one  to  de  la  Salle  and 
another  to  the  superioress  of  the  Sisters  of  the  Holy  Child  Jesus. 

Thus  did  God  achieve  His  purpose  in  bringing  together  the  two 
men,  each  of  whom  was  to  contribute  his  share  in  the  establishment 
of  schools.  Neither  M.  Nyel  nor  St.  de  la  Salle  had  the  slightest 
idea  or  presentiment  of  the  stupendous  undertaking  in  which  they 
were  about  to  engage. 

By  a  mysterious  coincidence  they  both  met  at  the  house  of  the 
Sister  superioress,  and  in  the  interview  that  followed,  de  la  Salle 
offered  to  house  M.  Nyel  for  a  few  days,  suggesting  that  he  could 
thus  study  up  the  situation  at  his  leisure. 

Though  de  la  Salle  most  cheerfully  tendered  his  cooperation  in 
the  proposed  undertaking,  he  knew  not  just  how  to  proceed.  But 
having  consulted  God  in  prayer,  he  decided  to  submit  the  matter 
to  a  number  of  his  ecclesiastical  friends.  Meetings  were  held  at 
different  times,  and  the  members  of  the  council  finally  agreed  to  act 
on  the  opinion  of  de  la  Salle,  namely,  to  entrust  the  venture  to  M. 
Dorigny,  parish  priest  of  St.  Maurice. 

No  better  choice  could  have  been  made,  as  the  worthy  pastor 
had  himself  been  contemplating  for  some  time  the  founding  of  a 
public  free  school,  and  he  of  course  most  heartily  accepted  the 
welcome  proposition.  He  even  insisted  that  M.  Nyel  and  the 
companion  who  accompanied  him,  board  and  lodge  at  the  paro- 
chial residence.  Madame  de  Maillefer 's  yearly  allowance  covered 
all  the  expenses.  The  school  was  opened  April  15,  1679,  and  in  a 
short  time  was  in  most  flourishing  condition.63 

De  la  Salle,  having  thus  brought  about  the  successful  issue  of  the 
enterprise,  desired  to  withdraw  from  further  notice.  But  this  was 
impossible.  The  heroic  disinterestedness  of  the  servant  of  God, 
coupled  with  an  unusual  sagacity,  only  drew  upon  him  more  and 
more  the  attention  of  others.  M.  Nyel  regarded  him  as  his  chief 
counsellor,  and  frequently  called  upon  him  in  his  difficulties.  De 
la  Salle,  on  his  part,  always  received  him  most  kindly  and  rendered 
him  whatever  services  he  could. 

When  some  months  later,  Madame  de  Croyeres,  a  lady  of  great 
fortune,  desired  that  a  similar  school  be  opened  in  her  parish  of 

"Annales  de  1'Institut,  ibid.,  8. 


BROTHERS    OF   THE    CHRISTIAN    SCHOOLS  27 

Saint-Jacques,  the  holy  canon  was  again  induced,  though  rather 
reluctantly,  to  assume  the  role  of  organizer.  God  seems  also  to 
have  given  visible  sign  of  His  approval,  for  just  at  this  time  three 
young  men  offered  themselves  to  assist  in  the  work.54 

Hence,  M.  Nyel  was  able  to  open  the  school  in  September,  1679. 
He  himself  took  charge  of  it,  having  provided  another  master  to 
replace  him  at  St.  Maurice. 

The  new  school  was  soon  as  flourishing  as  the  first.  But  not- 
withstanding the  fact  that  the  two  schools  were  successful,  they 
did  not  fully  come  up  to  expectations,  especially  they  were  not  ac- 
cording to  de  la  Salle's  conception  of  what  a  perfect  school  implies. 
Before  long  it  became  apparent  that  the  teachers  lacked  the  disci- 
pline and  regularity  so  indispensably  necessary  not  only  for  success 
in  their  daily  work,  but  above  all  for  their  very  existence  as  a 
united  teaching-body. 

M.  Nyel,  their  nominal  superior,  though  evidently  well-inten- 
tioned and  capable  in  certain  respects,  had  not  the  requisite 
stability  of  character  and  tact  properly  to  direct  his  fellow- 
teachers.  His  frequent  absence,  for  example,  was  undoubtedly  a 
cause  of  disorder  and  irregularity.55  Then  too,  with  the  increase  in 
teachers,  the  funds  required  for  the  general  maintenance  became 
altogether  insufficient. 

Discouragement  was  the  inevitable  consequence,  and  most  prob- 
ably had  it  not  been  for  the  kind  attention  and  generosity  of  de  la 
Salle,  who  could  not  refrain  from  interesting  himself  in  their  wel- 
fare, the  teachers  would  have  disbanded. 

The  holy  priest  offered  to  defray  the  balance  of  their  expenses, 
and,  on  his  suggestion,  they  rented  a  house  near  his  own  where  he 
supplied  them  with  food  from  his  own  kitchen,  thereby  reducing 
their  cost  of  living.  Besides,  he  furnished  them  a  daily  time-table, 
thus  regulating  their  hour  of  rising,  taking  of  meals,  retiring,  etc. 

Practically  he  was  their  superior,  though  he  himself  regarded  his 
benevolent  acts  as  mere  exterior  tokens  of  consideration.  As  yet 
he  harbored  no  idea  of  assuming  absolute  control  over  them,  and 
still  less  had  he  any  desire  of  sharing  their  mode  of  life  and  becom- 
ing one  of  them.  Being  himself  a  man  of  exceptional  culture  and 
refinement,  he  could  not  but  feel  a  sort  of  natural  repugnance  for 
these  men  comparatively  unattractive  and  uncouth  in  manners. 

"Brother  Noah,  Life  and  Work  of  the  Yen.  J.B.dela  Salle,  54,  N.  Y.,  1883. 
"Ibid.,  56;  cf.  Annales,  ibid.,  10. 


28  ORIGIN   OF   THE   TEACHING   BROTHERHOODS 

His  own  words  most  candidly  express  his  state  of  mind  and  feelings 
toward  them:  "If  I  had  ever  thought  that  what  I  did  out  of  pure 
charity  for  the  poor  school-teachers  would  make  it  incumbent  upon 
me  to  live  with  them,  I  would  have  given  it  up  at  once."56  And 
again:  "I  imagined  that  my  relations  with  these  masters  required 
me  simply  to  direct  their  external  conduct,  to  provide  for  their 
wants,  and  to  see  that  they  fulfilled  their  duties  faithfully."57 

It  is  not  to  be  supposed  that  de  la  Salle  occupied  himself  with  the 
masters  to  any  great  extent.  His  duties  as  canon  as  well  as  his 
own  household  affairs,  and  above  all  his  theological  studies  at  the 
university,  left  him  very  little  time  for  anything  else.  The  fact 
that  he  even  passed  for  his  doctorate  about  this  time  (1681), 
clearly  shows  what  was  uppermost  in  his  mind. 

But,  as  his  interest  in  the  schoolmasters  gradually  increased,  he 
felt  the  necessity  of  giving  them  more  attention,  and  to  economize 
time,  he  had  them  come  and  take  meals  at  his  own  house.  He 
utilized  the  occasion  in  giving  them  further  advice  and  wholesome 
direction  for  their  own  personal  and  individual  good,  as  well  as 
practical  suggestions  as  to  the  management  of  their  classes. 

This  general  surveillance,  while  certainly  benefiting  the  masters 
personally,  must  also  have  indirectly  aided  very  much  towards 
popularizing  their  schools,  for  in  a  short  time  demands  came  in 
from  different  quarters  asking  for  teachers.  The  first  of  these  was 
from  Guise,  a  city  near  Reims. 

M.  Nyel,  true  to  his  arduous  and  impetuous  nature,  was  in  favor 
of  immediate  acceptance.  De  la  Salle,  however,  was  altogether 
opposed  to  the  idea,  and  he  tried  by  various  arguments  to  dissuade 
his  friend  from  undertaking  the  venture,  but  all  to  no  avail.  The 
opportunity  was  too  promising  for  M.  Nyel,  and  he  could  not 
resist.  He  accordingly  left  for  Guise  during  Holy  Week  (1681), 
secretly  reckoning  on  de  la  Salle  to  replace  him  in  his  absence. 
But  after  about  a  week  he  returned  depressed  and  disappointed; 
the  venture  had  failed.58 

While  he  was  away  de  la  Salle  had  occasion  to  come  into  closer 
contact  with  the  young  teachers,  and  to  observe  how  deficient  they 


B6Catholic  Encyclopedia,  ibid.,  Vol.  VIII,  444;  cf.  M.  l'Abb6  J.  B.  Blain, 
La  Vie  du  Ven.  Serviteur  de  Dieu,  Jean  Baptist  de  la  Salle,  Instituteur  des 
Freres  des  ficoles  Chretiennes,  85,  Rouen.  1733. 

"Brother  Noah,  ibid.,  58. 

"Ravelet,  ibid.,  146,  147. 


BROTHERS   OF   THE   CHRISTIAN   SCHOOLS  29 

were  in  certain  particulars.  In  fact,  their  condition  was  such  that 
there  was  little  hope  of  their  long  surviving  if  in  his  charity  and 
goodness  he  had  not  taken  the  matter  personally  in  hand.  M. 
Nyel  was  aware  of  conditions  but  knew  not  what  remedy  to  pro- 
pose.59 

On  his  return  from  Guise  he  noticed  a  very  marked  improvement 
in  his  confreres,  and  it  is  not  surprising  therefore  that  he  should 
have  begged  de  la  Salle  to  take  them  into  his  own  house  and 
assume  entire  responsibility  for  the  future.60 

This  was  rather  a  serious  proposition,  and  the  holy  man  fully 
realized  what  it  meant  for  him  should  he  consent.  He  had  grad- 
ually and  unconsciously  grown  to  love  the  poor  teachers  and  the 
noble  work  in  which  they  were  engaged.  It  is  true,  they  were  men 
of  little  culture  and  learning,  but  he  could  not  help  admiring  their 
sincerity  and  good  will.  To  abandon  them,  seemed  to  him  cruel 
and  heartless.  But  then  too,  he  was  certain  to  arouse  bitter 
opposition  on  the  part  of  the  members  of  the  household  should  he 
bring  in  the  young  men  to  live  with  him. 

In  his  perplexity  he  determined  to  seek  the  advice  of  his  spirit- 
ual director,  P£re  Barre,  who  was  then  at  Paris.  He  went  to  see 
him,  and,  with  childlike  simplicity  and  candor,  exposed  to  him  his 
predicament.  Father  Barre*,  after  hearing  all,  felt  convinced  it 
was  God's  will  that  de  la  Salle  should  devote  himself  to  the  educa- 
tion of  youth,  and  that  he  should  continue  the  work  already  so 
well  begun.  "Take  your  teachers,"  he  told  him,  "lodge  them  in 
your  private  residence,  provide  them  with  food  and  clothing:  in  a 
word,  become  their  superior  and  their  father.61 

De  la  Salle  no  longer  hesitated.  The  words  of  Father  Barre* 
were  to  him  as  the  voice  of  Heaven,  and  he  decided  then  and  there, 
to  follow  the  promptings  of  his  own  good  nature,  regardless  of 
whatever  others  would  say  or  think.  Accordingly,  on  June  24, 
1681,  the  feast-day  of  his  patron,  St.  John  the  Baptist,  the  entire 
community  was  transferred  to  his  own  residence.61 

As  he  suspected,  his  action  stirred  up  the  bitterest  feelings  in  the 
family,  and  called  forth  unfavorable  comments  and  even  the  ridi- 
cule on  the  part  of  others,  but  he  would  not  alter  his  course. 

"Brother  Noah,  ibid.,  60. 
•°Ravelot,  ibid.,  147. 
"Brother  Noah,  ibid.,  62. 
«Annales,  ibid.,  14. 


30  ORIGIN    OF   THE   TEACHING    BROTHERHOODS 


All  the  time  he  could  possibly  spare,  he  devoted  to  the  intellec- 
tual and  religious  formation  of  his  teachers;  thus  inuring  them 
gradually  to  the  rule  and  strict  discipline  of  a  regular  religious 
community.  Not  all,  however,  could  conform  themselves  to  this 
new  regime.  A  few  among  them  manifestly  had  no  vocation,  and, 
as  a  matter  of  course,  withdrew  from  the  group. 

In  consequence,  conditions  for  a  time  became  somewhat  pre- 
carious, and  the  good  work  seemed  almost  on  the  point  of  dissolu- 
tion; the  outlook  was  anything  but  encouraging.  Nevertheless, 
de  la  Salle  did  not  lose  heart;  he  prayed  and  toiled  on  bravely  with 
firm  trust  in  Providence,  hoping  for  better  days  to  come.  Nor 
was  he  disappointed.  New  members  gradually  presented  them- 
selves, and  the  community  again  assumed  normal  conditions.63 

In  June,  1682,  de  la  Salle  had  the  teachers  removed  from  his  own 
residence  to  one  more  quiet  and  secluded,  situated  in  the  vicinity 
of  the  rue  Nueve,  and  which,  it  is  claimed,  the  Brothers  have 
retained  ever  since.  It  could  truly  be  regarded  as  the  berceau  of 
the  Institute  of  the  Brothers  of  the  Christian  Schools.64 

De  la  Salle  had  thus  advanced  another  step  towards  the  final 
goal  by  his  partial  separation  from  home  and  relatives.  Uncon- 
sciously he  was  strengthening  more  and  more  the  bonds  which  were 
uniting  him  to  his  life-work,  already  begun  at  the  time  he  first 
incidentally  met  Adrian  Nyel  on  the  threshold  of  the  Sisters' 
convent.  He  had  as  yet  no  definite  plans,  and  was  altogether 
uncertain  of  the  future.  But  he  was  not  disturbed.  He  felt  he 
was  in  the  hands  of  God  who,  in  His  own  good  time,  would  most 
assuredly  manifest  His  Divine  will.  Meanwhile  he  patiently  and 
diligently  labored  in  the  interests  of  his  beloved  schoolmasters. 

The  number  of  schools  had  in  time  increased,  a  few  of  these  being 
outside  the  city  of  Reims,  for  example,  those  of  Rethel,  Chateau- 
Porcien  and  Laon,  all  free  schools  and  founded  during  the  year 
1682.  M.  Nyel  negotiated  affairs,  and  he  did  indeed  acquit  him- 
self most  admirably  of  the  task  entrusted  to  him,  without  seeming 
in  the  least  to  appropriate  to  himself  any  undue  credit,  whereas  he 
was  always  most  enthusiastic  in  praise  of  his  beloved  master  and 
director.  Besides,  he  was  greatly  instrumental  in  the  recruiting 
of  new  members,  thus  indirectly  aiding  in  the  foundation  of  new 
schools.66 


"Ravelet,  ibid.,  150. 
"Annales,  ibid.,  20. 
"Brother  Noah,  ibid.,  64. 


BROTHERS    OF   THE    CHRISTIAN    SCHOOLS  31 

As  time  went  on  de  la  Salle  felt  more  and  more  convinced  that 
it  was  God's  will  he  should  devote  all  his  time  and  energy  to  the 
direction  of  his  teachers  and  their  schools,  in  short,  that  he  must 
make  it  his  life-work.66  On  the  other  hand  he  realized  too,  what 
sacrifices  this  would  entail:  the  relinquishing  of  his  canonry,  and 
all  further  prospects  of  ecclesiastical  honors  and  dignities,  the  total 
and  irrevocable  severance  of  all  family  ties,  and  in  return,  a  life 
of  renunciation,  hardship  and  trial. 

These  were  indeed  questions  of  momentous  importance  and 
worthy  of  most  serious  consideration.  Hence  he  sought  in  prayer 
and  consultation  with  others  the  necessary  light  and  counsel  to 
direct  himself  properly.  "In  the  choice  I  am  about  to  make,"  he 
writes,  "what  should  determine  my  resolution?  Certainly,  the 
greater  glory  of  God,  the  service  of  the  Church,  my  perfection,  and 
the  salvation  of  souls.  But  if  I  consult  these  motives,  so  befitting 
a  priest  of  the  Lord,  I  must  determine  to  renounce  my  canonry, 
to  give  myself  entirely  to  the  care  of  the  schools,  and  to  form  good 
teachers.  Moreover,  God,  who  conducts  all  things  wisely  and 
gently,  who  forces  not  the  inclinations  of  men,  wishes  me  to  devote 
myself  entirely  to  the  care  of  these  schools;  He  directs  me  toward 
this  end,  in  an  imperceptible  though  rapid  manner,  so  that  one 
connection  after  another  has  attached  me  to  a  vocation  I  had 
not  foreseen."67 

After  deliberate  reflection  and  earnest  prayer  he  finally  decided, 
despite  every  opposition,  to  make  the  sacrifice.  Accordingly  in 
July,  1683,  he  resigned  his  canonry,  which  act  he  later  supple- 
mented by  the  heroic  renunciation  of  his  entire  patrimony  in  the 
interests  of  the  poor. 

All  earthly  ties  were  thus  broken,  and  he  could  now  reckon  him- 
self as  one  among  his  beloved  disciples.  As  expressed  in  the 
Annales,  the  holy  founder,  "devenu  enfin  pauvre  lui-mtme  et 
depouille  de  toute  dignite  eccttsiastique,  il  parut  heureux  au  milieu 
de  ses  discipks,  en  les  assurant  que  des&rmais  tous  ensemble  ne 
formeraient  qu'une  seule  Jamille**"  Their  joys  and  sorrows  were 
to  be  his.  All  his  energies  were  to  be  henceforth  employed  in  the 
interest  of  his  rising  institute  and  the  furtherance  of  Christian 
schools. 


••Annales,  ibid.,  22. 
"Brother  Noah,  ibid.,  65. 
••Annales,  ibid.,  24. 


32  ORIGIN   OF  THE   TEACHING   BROTHERHOODS 

In  becoming,  therefore,  the  head  and  soul  of  the  community,  de 
la  Salle's  first  care  was  to  provide  his  Brothers  with  a  more  or  less 
detailed  rule,  which  would  unite  them  as  one  body  and  establish 
them  on  a  firm  foundation.  To  this  end,  he  called  a  general  meet- 
ing at  Reims,  May  9,  1684,  of  all  the  directors  of  the  principal 
schools.  There  were  twelve  in  all,  including  those  of  the  local 
house. 

During  their  deliberations  it  was  decided:  "  (1)  to  form  an  asso- 
ciation, to  which  they  gave  the  name  of  Society  of  the  Brothers  of 
the  Christian  Schools  (Societe  des  Freres  des  Ecoles  chretiennes) ; 

(2)  to  take  each  a  name  of  religion,  preceded  by  the  word  Brother; 

(3)  to  wear  a  uniform  costume,  regarding  which  St.  de  la  Salle  was 
asked  to  determine  the  color  and  the  form."69    Other  important 
questions,  such  as  the  vows,  regulations  of  the  day,  and  of  meals 
were  likewise  dwelt  upon  and  at  least  provisionally  outlined.  There 
was  no  written  rule;  it  was  only  after  eleven  years  that  this  was 
thought  of.     In  the  meantime  the  Brothers  were  to  follow  the 
verbal  prescriptions  which  their  holy  founder  committed  to  them. 

Some  among  the  most  fervent  present  at  the  meeting  wished 
to  consecrate  themselves  to  the  society  by  perpetual  vows,  but 
their  prudent  director,  aware  of  the  fickleness  of  human  nature, 
wisely  moderated  their  zeal.  In  the  discussion  that  followed  it 
was  agreed  that  the  twelve  Brothers  present  would  take  the  vow 
of  obedience  and  stability  in  the  society  for  three  years,  to  be 
renewed  annually.  The  appropriate  ceremony  took  place  Trinity 
Sunday,  May  27,  1684. 70  The  younger  members  were  attended 
to  later  on. 

In  virtue  of  this  solemn  act  of  religion  the  community  could 
henceforth,  in  all  truth,  regard  itself  as  a  religious  congregation, 
even  though  there  was  not  as  yet  any  official  recognition  from 
either  the  Church  or  the  State.  The  Brothers  experienced  as  a 
result  a  renewed  vitality  and  an  assurance  of  the  divine  protection 
in  their  work  of  charity.  Animated  with  a  generous  spirit  and  in 
union  with  their  holy  founder,  they  determined  to  labor  both  for 
their  own  sanctification  and  the  eternal  interest  of  the  little  ones 
entrusted  to  their  care. 

Shortly  after  the  above  ceremony  de  la  Salle  founded  his  novi- 
tiate at  Reims,  and  in  the  same  year  (1684),  in  response  to  the 


"Ibid.,  27. 

70Ravelet,  ibid.,  183,  and  cf.  Annales,  ibid.,  28. 


BROTHERS    OF   THE    CHRISTIAN    SCHOOLS  33 

earnest  solicitations  of  several  pastors  from  the  rural  districts  in 
the  neighborhood  of  Reims,  he  instituted  his  seminary  (normal 
school)  for  the  training  of  country  school-teachers,  the  very  first 
mentioned  in  the  annals  of  public  instruction.71  As  he  had  not  a 
sufficient  number  of  Brothers,  and  besides  having  made  a  rule 
never  to  send  less  than  two  of  them  to  teach  in  the  schools,  he 
received  young  laymen  furnished  him  by  the  cure's,  trained  them 
in  his  seminary  for  a  few  years,  and  then  sent  them  back  to  teach 
in  the  schools  of  the  villages  and  country  places. 

There  were,  therefore,  three  different  communities  at  Reims 
under  the  direction  of  de  la  Salle,  namely,  that  of  the  Brothers,  the 
novitiate,  and  the  seminary  of  the  country  school-teachers,  in  all 
about  fifty  persons.  Providence  blessed  the  work,  and  it  flourished 
for  the  time  being  despite  the  unavoidable  inconveniences  and  the 
occasional  petty  jealousies  of  outsiders. 

Toward  the  end  of  the  year  1685,  Adrian  Nyel,  who  had  had  till 
then  almost  exclusive  control  of  the  schools  other  than  those  of  the 
city  of  Reims,  withdrew  himself  from  further  connection  with  the 
Brothers.  He  had  not  the  vocation,  in  fact,  never  really  reckoned 
himself  as  one  of  them.  De  la  Salle  certainly  regretted  very  much 
to  lose  the  man  who  had  been,  after  God,  the  one  most  instrumental 
in  founding  the  institute,  and  who  had  worked  so  zealously  in  its 
behalf.  He  returned  to  Rouen  where  he  was  reinstated  as  super- 
intendent of  schools  of  the  poor,  which  office  he  held  till  his  death 
in  1687. 

By  his  departure  the  institute  was  assured  centralization  of 
government,  together  with  a  more  definite  unity  of  organization.72 
Henceforth  all  responsibility  rested  with  de  la  Salle,  as  every  phase 
and  detail  relating  to  the  institute  depended  now  upon  his  direct 
management.  The  honor  of  being  superior  was,  however,  not  at 
all  according  to  his  desires,  and  thinking  the  occasion  opportune,  he 
made  overtures  to  free  himself  from  the  heavy  burden,  and  actually 
succeeded  in  persuading  the  Brothers  to  elect  one  from  their 
midst,  Brother  Henri  L'Heureux,  as  head  of  the  community. 

As  we  may  readily  judge,  this  abnormal  state  of  affairs  could  not 
endure  very  long,  for  as  soon  as  the  ecclesiastical  authorities  be- 
came aware  of  conditions,  they  insisted  and  prevailed  upon  the 
holy  founder  to  resume  his  position  as  superior  of  the  Brothers. 


"Ravelet,  ibid.,  106. 
"Annafes,  ibid.,  42. 


34          ORIGIN  OF  THE  TEACHING  BROTHERHOODS 

With  all  that,  de  la  Salle  clung  to  his  idea,73  and  to  this  effect  he 
afforded  Brother  Henri  the  opportunity  to  study  for  the  priest- 
hood, with  the  intention  of  installing  him  some  day  as  his  successor. 
But  again  he  was  disappointed,  for  the  good  Brother  took  sick  and 
died  when  just  about  ready  for  ordination.  It  was  indeed  a  heavy 
blow,  but  de  la  Salle,  after  a  night  spent  in  prayer  and  reflection, 
also  recognized  in  this  sad  incident  a  clear  indication  of  the  Divine 
will  that  the  society  was  not  to  include  priests  among  its  members, 
and  in  consequence  he  furthermore  most  explicitly  determined,  in 
regard  to  this  matter,  that  a  Brother  could  not  even  aspire  to  the 
priesthood.74 

In  1691,  the  founder  together  with  two  of  the  most  influential  of 
the  Brothers,  Nicholas  Vuyart  and  Gabriel  Drolin,  took  perpetual 
engagements,  vowing  to  maintain  and  further  the  interests  of  the 
institute  as  far  as  lay  in  their  power,  thus  guaranteeing,  at  least 
humanly  speaking,  its  permanent  existence. 

Four  years  afterwards  (1695),  de  la  Salle  submitted  to  the  Broth- 
ers the  first  draft  of  the  rules  as  written  by  himself.  It  was  re- 
ceived as  the  expression  of  the  will  of  Heaven,  and  conduced  very 
much  toward  strengthening  the  bonds  of  union  among  the  mem- 
bers, as  well  as  inspiring  greater  love  for  the  institute.75 

Yet  the  community  had  its  periods  of  trial  and  suffering.  Be- 
sides deaths  and  defections  among  the  Brothers,  which  at  times 
considerably  reduced  their  number,  persecution  and  calumny 
eventually  threatened  destruction  and  ruin.  The  most  bitter 
attacks  emanated  from  a  certain  guild  of  secular  teachers,  the 
schoolmasters  and  writingmasters  who,  seeing  their  field  of  activity, 
more  or  less,  affected  by  the  schools  of  the  Brothers,  adopted  every 
possible  means  to  destroy  their  influence,  even  appealing  to  the 
civil  courts  to  achieve  their  purpose.76  Occasionally  also  among 
ecclesiastics  were  to  be  found  some  who  were  a  source  of  trouble 
and  vexation,  either  in  openly  maligning  the  founder,77  or  other- 


"Ravelet,  ibid.,  222. 

74Ibid.,  223,  and  cf.  Rules  of  the  Brothers,  ibid.,  ix-7;  (quoting  the  bull  of 
approbation  we  read:  "Quod  nullus  e  Fratribus  Sacerdoatium  mbiat,  aut  ad 
Or  dines  ecclesiasticos  aspiret"). 

76Cf.  Annales,  ibid.,  97.  From  all  accounts  the  Rules  of  de  la  Salle  were 
largely  the  fruit  of  his  own  prayer,  study  and  reflection.  Only  at  the  time  of 
their  revision  toward  the  end  of  his  life,  did  he  consider  it  necessary  to  add  cer- 
tain sections  taken  partly  from  the  constitutions  of  St.  Ignatius.  (Ravelet, 
ibid.,  406-409.) 

"Ravelet,  ibid.,  215  ff,  and  cf.  Brother  Noah,  ibid.,  152  ff. 

"Annales,  ibid.,  60. 


BROTHERS   OF   THE    CHRISTIAN    SCHOOLS  35 

wise  interfering  with  the  organization  and  government  of  the 
institute. 

The  persecution  apparently  reached  its  culmination  when  in 
1702,  Cardinal  de  Noailles  deposed  the  founder  and  provided 
another  priest,  M.  Bricot,  to  substitute  him  as  superior  of  the 
Brothers.78  Evidently  the  prelate  had  been  misinformed  and 
mislead  into  a  decision  which  he  very  soon  regretted.  The  Saint 
was  again  placed  at  the  head  of  his  community,  only  to  continue 
struggling  as  before. 

Still,  whilst  engaged  in  defending  his  own  interests,  and  vindi- 
cating his  honor  and  the  good  name  of  the  Brothers,  he  devoted 
himself  with  untiring  zeal  in  extending  the  works  of  the  society. 
Year  by  year  the  community  increased  in  membership,  and  schools 
sprang  up  everywhere  throughout  the  country.  The  institute 
seemed  thus  an  assured  fact,  but  in  the  mind  of  the  founder  only 
one  thing  was  yet  necessary  to  ensure  its  lasting  stability:  the 
installation  of  a  Brother  as  superior  general. 

To  this  effect  he  called  a  general  chapter  in  1717,  and  having 
at  last  convinced  the  Brothers  that  it  would  be  most  expedient  for 
the  society  that  he  surrender  his  authority  to  another,  th$  assembly 
proceeded  in  the  election  of  a  new  superior.  The  unanimous  choice 
was  in  favor  of  Brother  Barthelemy,  the  one  most  highly  esteemed 
for  his  virtue  and  ability.79 

His  great  mission  accomplished,  de  la  Salle  could  now  peace- 
fully and  calmly  look  into  the  future,  feeling  certain  that  his 
institute  would  stand  the  test  of  time;  and  that  his  beloved  disci- 
ples would,  with  the  blessing  of  Heaven,  continue  the  glorious 
work  of  education,  in  which  cause  he  had  labored  and  endured 
so  much. 

At  his  death  two  years  later  (1719),  the  institute  numbered 
two  hundred  and  seventy-four  Brothers,  with  twenty-six  houses 
in  France  and  one  in  Rome.  In  1725,  the  new  congregation  was 
the  recipient  of  two  singular  favors:  one  the  legal  recognition 
by  the  State,  and  the  other  the  approbation  by  the  Holy  See.80 

The  spirit  of  the  founder  still  lives  in  his  spiritual  children,  with 
the  same  freshness  and  vigor  as  when  he  sojourned  among  them. 
Truly  the  mustard  seed  has  grown  to  a  mighty  tree  whose  branches 


"Ravelet,  ibid.,  266  ff. 

79Ibid.,  403-407,  and  cf.  Brother  Noah,  ibid.,  243  ff. 

"°Ravelet,  ibid.,  439  ff. 


36  ORIGIN   OF   THE   TEACHING    BROTHERHOODS 

spread  over  the  world.  Establishments  of  the  Brothers  dot  the 
map  of  every  country  on  the  globe.  Thus,  according  to  the  de- 
tailed figures  available  up  to  1888,  the  year  of  the  beatification 
of  de  la  Salle,  there  were  1896  communities:  Europe  1625  (1427 
in  France  alone),  Asia  39,  Africa  56,  and  America  176.81  In  1900, 
the  institute  could  muster  a  total  membership  of  well-nigh  15,500,82 
a  glorious  testimony  indeed  of  the  energizing  spirit  that  permeates 
the  life  and  work  of  the  Brothers. 

Beyond  question  they  are  the  most  numerous  among  the  teach- 
ing Brotherhoods,  and  most  certainly,  too,  their  influence  has 
affected  every  subsequent  teaching  organization,  which  fact  will 
become  more  and  more  evident  as  we  proceed. 

BROTHERS  OF  ST.  GABRIEL     (1702) 

This  congregation,  originally  called  the  Brothers  of  the  Holy 
Ghost,  (Freres  du  St.  Esprit),  was  founded  by  the  great  French 
missionary,  Blessed  Grignion  de  Montfort,  at  the  beginning  of  the 
eighteenth  century,  twenty  years  after  that  of  St.  de  la  Salle. 
Its  early  activities  were  confined  to  northwestern  France,  especially 
Brittany  and  Vendee,  where  de  Montfort  spent  the  greater  part 
of  his  missionary  career. 

Louis-Marie  Grignion  de  Montfort  was  born  at  Montfort-sur- 
Meu,  in  Brittany,  January  31,  1673.  From  early  childhood  he 
gave  evidence  of  singular  piety,  and  in  particular,  a  most  extraordi- 
nary love  for  the  Mother  of  God,  which  became,  in  fact,  one  of  his 
distinctive  characteristics.  In  the  words  of  M.  Blain,83  a  school 
companion  and  life-long  friend,  "the  love  of  Mary  was  as  born 
with  him  ...  He  was  the  zealous  panegyrist  of  the  Blessed 
Virgin,  the  faithful  promulgator  of  her  privileges  and  her  great- 
ness, the  indefatigable  preacher  of  her  devotion,  in  short,  one  of 
the  greatest  devotees  of  the  Mother  of  God  the  Church  has  ever 
seen."84 

When  twelve  years  of  age  he  was  sent  to  study  at  the  college 
of  the  Jesuits  at  Rennes,  where  he  gave  the  example  of  rarest 


"Ibid.,  621. 

^The  Catholic  Editing  Company,  The  Catholic  Church  in  the  U.  S.  of  Amer- 
ica, Vol.  I,  89,  New  York,  1912. 

"The  same  who  later  on  became  the  spiritual  director  of  the  Christian 
Brothers,  and  the  first  biographer  of  St.  de  la  Salle. 

MFonteneau  R.  P.,  Vie  du  Bienheureux  L.  M.  Grignion  de  Montfort,  4, 
Paris,  1887. 


BROTHERS    OF   ST.    GABRIEL  37 

diligence  and  virtue.  At  the  age  of  nineteen  he  left  for  Paris  to 
enter  upon  his  theological  course,  in  preparation  for  the  ecclesiasti- 
cal state,  and  at  twenty-seven  he  was  ordained  priest. 

In  his  ardent  zeal  for  souls  he  shortly  afterwards  offered  to  ac- 
company an  expedition  to  America,  to  labor  as  missionary  among 
the  savages  of  Canada,  but  was  withheld  from  embarking  through 
the  intervention  of  his  spiritual  director.  Later,  this  same  in- 
clination to  labor  in  foreign  fields  manifested  itself,  when,  on  a 
visit  to  Rome,  he  petitioned  the  Holy  Father  to  allow  him  to  work 
among  the  infidels.  He  was  told  on  the  occasion  that  France 
was  a  field  vast  enough  for  the  exercise  of  his  zeal.86  And  cer- 
tainly his  after  career  proved  how  valuable  was  the  advice  of  the 
pope. 

For  three  years  he  filled  the  position  of  chaplain  of  the  General 
Hospital  in  Poitiers,  in  which  capacity  he  greatly  endeared  himself 
to  all,  especially  the  patients.  It  was  also  during  this  period  that 
he  conceived  various  projects  which  were  to  aid  in  perpetuating 
the  work  of  evangelization  in  which  he  was  to  engage,  namely, 
three  foundations:  one,  a  congregation  of  women  who  were  to  be 
employed  in  hospital  work,  and  in  teaching  poor  girls;  another,  a 
body  of  priests  to  give  missions;  and  a  third,  a  community  of 
Brothers  who  were  to  aid  the  missionaries  in  their  apostolic  labors, 
perform  manual  work,  and  also  teach  school.86 

The  Daughters  of  Wisdom  (Filles  de  la  Sagesse) ,  as  the  first  were 
called,  originated  about  this  time  (1702).  They  still  flourish,  and 
in  1900  ''numbered  five  thousand,  with  forty-four  houses,  and 
gave  instruction  to  60,000  children."87  The  second,  or  Company 
of  Mary  (Compagnie  de  Marie),  was  organized  only  a  year  or  two 
before  the  death  of  the  founder.  The  third  group,  or  Congrega- 
tion of  Brothers  of  the  Holy  Ghost,  was  formed  by  de  Montfort  in 
the  course  of  his  apostolic  tours. 

In  the  year  1705  the  first  member  of  the  Brotherhood  was  re- 
ceived, and  that  under  most  extraordinary  circumstances.  A 
young  man  from  Bouille'-Loret  had  come  to  Poitiers  with  the  inten- 
tion of  entering  the  Capuchin  order.  De  Montfort  accidentally 
met  him  in  one  of  the  churches  of  the  city,  and  was  deeply  im- 
cd  by  his  respectful  and  devotional  bearing.  He  called  the 


Tonteneau,  ibid.,  165. 
•"Ibid..  :;»><>. 
Vutholic  Encyclopedia,  Vol.  IX,  384,  and  cf.  Heimbucher,  ibid.,  552. 


38  ORIGIN    OF   THE    TEACHING    BROTHERHOODS 

young  man,  and  having  learnt  the  purpose  which  had  brought  him 
to  the  city,  the  servant  of  God,  as  if  by  Divine  inspiration,  addressed 
to  him  the  words  of  Christ :  "Follow  me."  And  indeed,  marvelous 
to  relate,  he  was  immediately  obeyed.88  The  young  candidate, 
afterwards  known  as  Brother  Mathurin,  thus  became  the  first 
member  of  the  society.  He  was  faithful  to  his  new  master,  and 
for  a  number  of  years  frequently  accompanied  him  on  his  missions. 

As  we  study  the  life  of  the  holy  missionary,  and  follow  him  from 
mission  to  mission,  we  discover  that,  at  times,  different  Brothers 
accompany  him  for  a  while  and  then  apparently  are  lost  from 
view.  It  is  possible  that  these  were  detained  in  certain  localities 
as  assistants  to  the  parish  priests  in  teaching  catechism,  or  even 
holding  class,  as  we  shall  see  later. 

In  his  endeavor  to  preserve  the  fruits  of  his  labors,  de  Montfort 
was  wont  to  establish  certain  practices,  such  as  the  recitation  of 
the  rosary,  and  to  found  confraternities  or  associations  of  the  Bl. 
Virgin,  but  above  all  was  he  solicitous  as  to  the  education  of  the 
children,  and  the  care  of  the  sick.  He  manifested  a  particular  love 
for  little  children,  and,  like  his  Divine  Master,  felt  happy  to  see 
himself  surrounded  by  the  little  ones,  to  whom  he  would  teach  the 
elements  of  Christian  doctrine.  In  all  his  missions  his  principal 
care  was  to  provide  the  parishes  with  good  teachers  for  both  boys 
and  girls.  As  mentioned  by  M.  Grandet,  his  first  biographer: 
"The  first  occupation  of  M.  Grignion  de  Montfort  was  to  estab- 
lish in  the  course  of  his  missions,  Christian  schools  for  the  boys  and 
the  girls,  and  he  wished  that  the  masters  be  clothed  in  black,  at 
least  in  soutane,  to  inspire  greater  respect,  and  the  mistresses  to 
wear  a  hood,  and  a  cloak  reaching  to  the  feet."89 

Now,  it  is  evident  that  the  holy  missionary  could  not  have 
employed  only  his  own  teachers,  the  Brothers  and  Sisters,  as  they 
were  comparatively  few  in  number — twelve  Brothers  and  a  few 
Sisters  at  the  time  of  his  death;  therefore  he  must  have  been 
obliged  to  have  recourse  to  outsiders.  He  does  not  state  expressly 
that  he  employed  the  Brothers  in  this  capacity,  but  still,  this 
should  not  argue  against  the  fact  that  the  Brothers  did  actually 
teach,  even  if  only  "d'unefagon  passagere,"  as  during  the  missions.90 


88Fonteneau,  ibid.,  152. 
M— Ibid.,  361. 

90Frfcre   J.  d.  P.  Les  Freres  de  St.  Gabriel  dans  UAmerique  du  Nord — Notice 
Historique,  11,  Roulers,  Belgique,  1913. 


BROTHERS   OF   ST.    GABRIEL  39 

M.  Grandet,  in  speaking  of  Brother  Mathurin,  says:  " During  all 
the  time  that  he  lived  with  M.  de  Montfort,  he  taught  catechism, 
held  class,  and  most  piously  attended  to  the  choir."  In  another 
part  of  his  writing  the  same  historian  mentions  that  "the  Brothers 
instituted  by  de  Montfort  were  assiduous  in  teaching  the  catechism, 
and  school.1'91  And  again,  in  the  testament  of  the  founder,  written 
on  the  eve  of  his  death,  his  wishes  are  clearly  manifested  in  regard 
to  the  question  of  the  Brothers  teaching  school.  There  is  mention 
of  a  "small  house  situated  at  Vouvant,  given  by  a  pious  lady  on 
condition  that,  if  there  are  not  funds  sufficient  to  build,  the 
Brothers  of  the  Community  of  the  Holy  Ghost  could  dwell  there, 
pour  faire  I'ecole  charitable."92 

Besides,  it  is  claimed  that  the  Brothers  taught  "defa<;on  perma- 
nente"  in  the  schools  of  La  Rochelle  and  St.  Laurent,93  but  whether 
or  not  this  was  during  the  lifetime  of  the  founder,  is  uncertain. 
However  this  may  be,  there  is  no  doubt  about  the  fact  that,  in  the 
first  years  following  the  death  of  de  Montfort  (1716),  one  of  the 
Brothers  taught  school  at  St.  Laurent.  Therefore,  one  must  evi- 
dently conclude  with  the  esteemed  author  of  the  life  of  the  holy 
founder  that  "le  bienheureux  Grignion  de  Montfort  a  reellement 
fonde  un  groupe  de  freres  enseignants."94 

As  referred  to  above,  there  were  only  about  twelve  Brothers  at 
the  time  of  his  death,  in  April,  1716,  but  the  seed  had  been  sown, 
and  it  slowly  grew  throughout  the  succeeding  years.  The  Brothers 
remained  true  to  the  original  purpose  conceived  by  de  Montfort, 
and,  while  some  engaged  in  teaching,  others  devoted  their  time  to 
manual  labor  in  the  interior  of  the  community,  or  assisted  the 
missionaries  in  their  work  of  salvation.  They  were  under  direc- 
tion of  the  superior  of  the  Company  of  Mary  until  1842  when  they 
assumed  self-government  by  electing  one  of  their  own  as  head  of 
the  community.96 

From  all  accounts  the  Brothers  were  never  very  numerous  during 
the  18th  century,  and  in  the  period  of  the  French  Revolution  they 
were  almost  on  the  verge  of  annihilation.  A  number  of  them  fell 
victim  to  the  ferocity  and  cruelty  of  the  revolutionists,96  and  there 


91Fonteneau,  ibid.,  362. 
wlbid.,  405. 

"Frfcre  J.  d.  P.  ibid.,  11. 

MLaveille  Mgr.,  Le  Bienheureux  Louis-Marie  Grignion  de  Montfort  et  set 
famines  religieuses,  341,  Tours,  1916. 
*Fonteneau,  ibid.,  415. 
"Laveille,  ibid.,  421. 


40  ORIGIN    OF   THE   TEACHING    BROTHERHOODS 

were  no  more  vocations  to  fill  the  ranks  of  those  missing.  Yet, 
despite  the  losses  and  suffering  sustained  by  the  little  community, 
it  survived  the  tempest;  and  thus  the  connecting  link  joining  the 
two  periods  of  its  existence  was  secured. 

When  calm  was  finally  restored  we  find  one  of  the  members  of 
the  community,  Brother  Elias,  resuming  the  work  of  teaching  at 
St.  Laurent.  He  was  still  teaching  in  1821,  when  the  priests  of  the 
Company  of  Mary  returned  to  continue  their  missionary  work.97 
The  superior  at  the  time,  M.  Gabriel  Deshayes,  was  a  man  en- 
dowed with  inexhaustible  energy,  and  imbued  with  the  most  ardent 
zeal  for  the  propagation  of  works  of  charity  and  education.  Be- 
sides being  co-founder  of  a  certain  Brotherhood,  he  was  also  found- 
er of  the  Sisters  of  Christian  Instruction  of  St.  Gildas,  of  the  Sisters 
of  the  Holy  Guardian  Angel,  and  of  the  Brothers  of  Agriculture  of 
St.  Francis  of  Assisi.™ 

In  becoming  superior  general  of  the  religious  families  of  Bl.  de 
Montfort,  he  undertook  to  resuscitate  the  Community  of  Brothers 
of  the  Holy  Ghost,  to  reorganize  it,  and  place  it  on  a  firm  and  last- 
ing foundation. 

Before  his  arrival  at  St.  Laurent,  and  while  vicar-general  of 
the  diocese  of  Vannes  and  cure  of  Auray,  he  had  founded  next  to  his 
presbytery,  a  novitiate  of  the  Brothers  of  Christian  Instruction 
(Ploermel),  at  the  same  time  that  his  esteemed  colleague,  Jean- 
Marie  de  Lamennais  conducted  one  at  Saint-Brieuc.  When  he 
left  the  parish,  ten  of  these  young  men  followed  him  to  join  the 
Brothers  of  the  Holy  Ghost." 

The  community  counted  only  eighteen  members  all  told  in  1821, 
but  before  the  end  of  the  following  year,  the  number  of  Brothers 
almost  reached  forty,  chiefly  due  to  the  zeal  and  energy  of  the  new 
superior. 

Fully  in  accord  with  the  project  of  de  Montfort  regarding 
Christian  instruction  for  the  poor,  M.  Deshayes  at  once  set  him- 
self to  prepare  some  of  his  Brothers  for  the  task  of  primary  teaching, 
having  in  view  the  sore  needs  of  the  poor  country  children100  of  the 


97Fonteneau,  ibid.,  441.  Besides  Brother  Elias  who  taught  the  little  boys 
of  the  parish,  there  were  three  other  Brothers  employed  in  the  service  of  the 
community. 

"Heimbucher,  ibid.,  359,  556,  568. 

"Laveille,  ibid.,  425;  the  remaining  novices  united  with  those  of  Saint- 
Brieuc. 

100Cf.  ibid.,  410,  425. 


BROTHERS    OF    ST.    GABRIEL  41 

Vendee.101  He  divided  the  Brothers  into  two  groups:  one,  inclu- 
ding those  who  manifested  a  special  aptitude  for  teaching,  Freres 
de  classe,  and  the  others,  Freres  de  travail,  who  were  to  attend  to  the 
temporalities.  The  distinction,  however,  was  not  so  rigid  as  to 
dispense  the  teachers  from  manual  work,  nor  on  the  other  hand,  to 
deprive  the  working-brothers  of  study  if  they  so  desired.  Both 
followed  the  same  rule,102  lived  together  under  the  same  roof,  and 
always  formed  but  one  family.103  The  method  of  teaching  was 
that  borrowed  from  the  Christian  Brothers.104 

The  community  seemed  favored  of  God  and  man  for  it  prospered 
both  in  membership  and  in  number  of  schools,  so  much  so  that  in 
1823  the  institute  was  approved  for  Western  France  by  royal  ordi- 
nance, under  the  name  of  the  Congregation  des  Freres  de  I' Instruc- 
tion chretienne  du  Saint-Esprit,  and  as  a  charitable  association  for 
the  instruction  of  youth.105  Two  years  later  (1825),  M.  Deshayes, 
while  on  a  visit  to  Rome,  obtained  from  the  Holy  Father  a  Brief  of 
commendation  for  the  institute. 

Its  progress  was,  however,  momentarily  retarded  by  the  Revo- 
lution of  1830,  and  the  Law  of  1833  relative  to  primary  teaching;106 
but  the  community  soon  adjusted  itself  to  the  new  requirements, 
and  continued  on  its  course  more  effective  than  before. 

With  the  constantly  increasing  number  of  Brothers  it  became 
apparent  that  more  spacious  and  appropriate  accommodations  were 
needed,  at  least  for  the  teaching  Brothers.  A  building  belonging  to 
the  Daughters  of  Wisdom  was  secured  for  the  purpose,  and  during 
the  month  of  October,  1835,  thirty-three  Brothers  of  the  Holy  Ghost 
established  themselves  in  their  new  home.  The  house  was  placed 
under  the  protection  of  St.  Gabriel,  in  grateful  recognition  of  their 
beloved  superior  whose  baptismal  name  was  Gabriel. 

101Laveille,  (same  author  as  above)  Jean-Marie  de  Lamennais,  Vol.  I,  355, 
Yannes,  1011. 

102This  rule  was  in  great  part  derived  from  the  Brothers  of  Christian  In- 
>tnictioii  i  IMoermel),  who  in  turn  based  theirs  on  that  of  St.  John  Baptist  de 
la  Salle,  (Laveille,  de  Lamennais,  Vol.  I,  333,  343) ;  the  Brothers  of  the  Holy 
Ghost  (St.  Gabriel),  observed  the  above  rule  until  1888,  (ibid.,  356). 

103 Laveille,  (Bl.  Gr.  de  Montfort)  ibid.,  426. 

I04Rule  of  1830,  Chap.  I,  Art.  1,  (noted  by  Laveille,  p.  426). 

105Laveille.  ibid.,  426. 

106"  Until  then  it  sufficed  for  a  member  of  a  teaching  congregation,  approved 
by  the  State,  to  present  to  the  rector  of  the  Academy,  a  letter  of  obedience, 
in  order  to  obtain  a  teacher's  certificate.  By  the  Law  of  1833  every  individual 
who  wished  to  open  a  school  was  obliged  to  present  to  the  mayor  of  the  com- 
mune when-  he  desired  to  establish  himself,  a  certificate  of  efficiency,  obtained 
by  examination;  and  also  a  certificate  of  good  conduct  obtained  from  the 
commune  or  communes  where  he  had  lived  during  the  foregoing  ten  years." 
(Fonteneau,  ibid.,  443.) 


42  ORIGIN    OF   THE   TEACHING    BROTHERHOODS 

In  time  the  name  passed  from  the  house  to  that  of  the  Brothers 
themselves,  who  thus  became  known  as  "Brothers  of  St.  Gabriel" 
(Freres  de  Saint-Gabriel) ,  to  distinguish  them  from  the  Brothers  of 
the  Holy  Ghost.  The  latter  retained  their  primitive  name,  and 
continued  to  reside  at  the  mother-house.107 

The  separation,  however,  did  not  sever  relations  between  the 
two,  for  they  both  continued  to  live  under  the  same  regime  as 
designated  in  the  statutes  of  1830,  drawn  up  by  M.  Deshayes,  and 
which  explicitely  state  "  that  the  superior  of  the  missionaries  should 
always  be  the  superior  of  the  teaching  Brothers  as  well  as  the 
others;  that  they  should  have,  however,  a  Brother  director  who 
should  attend  to  them  in  a  special  manner,  and  that  the  procurator 
be  likewise  a  missionary  who  should  occupy  himself  specially  with 
the  direction  of  the  Brothers  engaged  in  manual  labor."108 

M.  Deshayes  had  also  stipulated  in  the  statutes  that  after  his 
death  the  Brothers  were  to  be  governed  by  one  of  their  own. 
Accordingly  when  he  died  in  1841,  the  matter  was  taken  up  for 
consideration,  and  during  the  vacation  of  the  following  year  (1842), 
the  community  elected  Brother  Augustine  as  superior.109 

Henceforth  the  Brothers  of  St.  Gabriel  assumed  a  separate  and 
independent  existence.  Yet,  though  they  were  obliged  to  modify 
somewhat  their  relations  with  the  other  branches  of  de  Montfort, 
they  always  held  them  in  affectionate  esteem,  and  ever  preserved 
the  tenderest  recollections  of  their  common  origin.  Bl.  Grignion 
de  Montfort  has  been  preeminently  regarded  by  all  as  spiritual 
father  and  founder;  but  the  Brothers  of  St.  Gabriel,  on  their  part, 
intimately  associate  with  him  also  the  name  of  M.  Deshayes,  who 
undoubtedly  merits  an  equal  share  of  their  veneration.  He  was 
truly  the  second  founder  of  the  Brotherhood,  as  he  had  by  skillful 
management  and  judicial  exercise  of  power  and  authority,  saved 
the  institute  from  threatened  ruin,  infused  new  life  and  spirit 
among  its  members,  and  thus  assured  it  a  bright  and  promising 
future. 


107Fonteneau,  ibid.,  444;  the  Brothers  of  the  Holy  Ghost  adopted  the  name 
of  Coadjutor  Brothers  of  the  Company  of  Mary,  (Freres-Coadjuteurs  de  la 
Compagnie  de  Marie),  at  the  time  this  institute  was  approved  by  Rome. 

108Layeille,  ibid.,  428:  "que  le  supe>ieur  des  missionnaires  serait  toujours 
le  supe>ieur  des  Freres  de  ^instruction  comme  des  autres;  qu'il  y  aurait  cepen- 
dant  parmi  eux  un  frere  directeur  qui  s'en  occuperait  d'une  fagon  parti culiere, 
et  que  le  procureur  serait  un  des  missionnaires,  qui  se  chargerait  spScialement 
de  la  direction  des  Freres  de  travail  manuel."  These  regulations  were  strictly 
observed  until  the  death  of  M.  Deshayes. 

109Ibid.,  431. 


BROTHERS   OF   ST.    ANTHONY  43 

In  1853,  the  congregation,  under  the  name  of  "Brothers  of  St. 
Gabriel,"  was  legally  recognized  for  the  whole  of  France  and  its 
dependencies;  and  in  February,  1910,  Pius  X  granted  it  his  final 
approbation.110 

The  number  of  Brothers  throughout  the  world  for  the  year  1900, 
reached  a  total  of  almost  2,000,  distributed  in  more  than  200 
houses.111  Surely  no  additional  evidence  is  needed  to  prove  the 
prosperous  condition  of  the  Brotherhood.  The  patient  labors  of 
de  Montfort  have  at  last  borne  abundant  fruit. 

BROTHERS  OF  ST.  ANTHONY     (1709) 

Shortly  after  the  Brothers  of  the  Christian  Schools  had  estab- 
lished themselves  in  Paris,  a  pious  priest,  M.  Tabourin,  cure*  of 
St.  Marguerite,  founded  thea  bove  community  for  the  purpose  of 
furnishing  gratuitous  instruction  to  the  poor  children  of  the  city 
and  also  the  suburbs. 

A  special  feature  of  the  organization  is  that  the  members  are 
partly  secular  and  religious :  secular,  in  the  sense  that  they  take  no 
vows,  nor  have  any  distinctive  costume;  religious,  in  that  they 
recite  in  common  the  daily  canonical  hours,  and  also  perform  to- 
gether various  other  exercises  of  piety. 

Their  educational  system  is  based  on  the  pedagogical  princi- 
ples of  St.  de  la  Salle. 

The  association  was  authorized  by  royal  ordinance  January  23, 
1823. 112 

BROTHERS  OF  CHRISTIAN  INSTRUCTION  OF 
PLOERMEL     (1817) 

By  the  present  treatment  we  enter  into  a  period  immediately 
following  the  French  Revolution,  a  time  in  which  religion  and 
education  were  indeed  at  a  very  low  ebb,  and  there  was  need  of 
a  general  renovation.  The  Catholic  schools  had  been  closed  and 
all  the  religious  teachers  dispersed  at  the  time  of  the  great  political 
upheaval.113  In  consequence  when  more  peaceful  days  returned, 
there  were  not  wanting  zealous  and  heroic  souls  willing  to  labor, 


»«Cf.  ibid.,  432. 
"'Frere  J.  d.  P.  ibid.,  15. 

H1Buisson,  Dictionnaire  de  Pedagogic,  ibid.,  Pt.  I,  Vol.  I,  88,  1115;  Allain, 
ibid.,  290. 
113An  instance  may  be  cited  of  the  Brothers  of  the  Christian  Schools  who 


44  ORIGIN    OF    THE   TEACHING   BROTHERHOODS 

with  God's  help,  at  the  reconstruction  of  Christian  France.  An 
evidence  of  this  is  the  remarkable  fact  of  the  great  number  of 
religious-teaching  congregations  founded  in  the  country  during 
the  first  half  of  the  century.  Among  the  first  of  these  to  be  men- 
tioned is  that  of  the  "  Institute  of  the  Brothers  of  Christian  In- 
struction of  Ploermel "  (L'Institut  des  Freres  de  V Instruction 
Chretienne  de  Ploermel)  founded  by  two  priests,  Jean-Marie  de 
Lamennais  and  Gabriel  Deshayes.  As  the  former  is  generally 
credited  with  the  title  of  founder,  and,  in  fact,  assumed  the  prin- 
cipal role  in  the  government  of  the  institute,  more  details  will  be 
given  regarding  his  life  and  the  origin  of  his  foundation. 

Jean-Marie  Robert  de  Lamennais  (or  de  la  Mennais),  brother 
of  the  distinguished  writer,  was  born  at  Saint-Malo,  in  Brittany, 
on  September  8,  1780.  Having  lost  his  mother  when  he  was 
seven  years  of  age,  he  and  his  younger  brother  Felicite*  were  en- 
trusted to  the  care  and  direction  of  their  uncle,  M.  des  Saudrais, 
a  resident  of  La  Chenaie,  situated  two  leagues  from  Dinan.  It 
was  here  that  the  two  boys  received  their  early  education,  which, 
owing  to  the  ravages  of  the  Revolution,  depended,  to  a  great  ex- 
tent, on  the  personal  services  of  their  kind  patron,  and  on  the  as- 
sistance of  two  friends  of  the  family,  M.  Carre*,  and  Tabbe"  Louis 
Vielle,  one  of  the  proscribed  priests. 

Jean-Marie  very  early  manifested  an  inclination  to  the  priest- 
hood, and  as  the  ecclesiastical  colleges  had  been  suppressed,  the 
good  abbe"  volunteered  to  direct  his  theological  studies.114  Later 
on  (1797),  animated  with  zeal  for  the  interests  of  the  Church,  the 
young  man  joined  the  Society  of  the  Sacred  Heart  of  Jesus,115  and 
in  1804  he  received  holy  orders. 


were  teaching  at  the  time  40,000  pupils.  Despite  a  general  admission  by  the 
Revolutionary  faction  as  to  the  commendatory  state  of  the  Brothers'  schools, 
the  decree  of  1792  declared  that  "a  free  state  should  not  suffer  the  existence 
of  any  corporation,  not  even  of  those  which,  being  devoted  to  public  instruc- 
tion, had  merited  well  of  the  country."  As  a  result,  the  Brothers  to  the  num- 
ber of  nearly  a  thousand  were  dispersed,  and  their  schools  closed.  (Cf. 
Ravelet,  ibid.,  473  ff,  and  Bro.  Noah,  ibid.,  329.) 

U4Auvray  Auguste,  Le  Venerable  Jean-Marie  Robert  de  la  Mennais,  8, 
Vannes,  1912. 

116This  was  a  religious  association  founded  in  1790  at  Saint-Malo  by  Rev. 
P.  Picot  de  Cloriviere,  a  former  Jesuit.  The  society  was  chiefly  composed  of 
priests  who,  though  making  profession  of  the  evangelical  counsels,  lived  a 
separate  and  independent  life,  without  any  exterior  mark  to  distinguish  them 
from  their  fellow- men.  They  effected  much  good,  particularly  during  the 
Revolutionary  times.  (Laveille  R.  P.,  Jean-Marie  de  la  Mennais,  Vol.  I, 
27  ff,  Vannes,  1911.) 


BROTHERS  OF  CHRISTIAN  INSTRUCTION  OF  PLOEMEL  45 

He  continued  to  reside  at  La  Che'naie,  where  he  and  his  brother 
spent  the  greater  part  of  their  time  in  study,  and  in  the  production 
of  a  series  of  polemical  works  appropriate  to  the  then  existing  needs 
of  the  Church.116  They  did  not,  however,  remain  very  long  in 
seclusion,  as  they  were  both  commissioned  to  teach  at  the 
Ecclesiastical  College  of  Saint-Malo,  which  position  they  held  till 
its  suppression  by  the  imperial  authorities,  November  11,  1811. 

Fe'licite*  returned  immediately  to  his  former  place  of  studies, 
and  Jean-Marie  left  for  the  paternal  home.  The  latter  was  re- 
solved henceforth  to  live  a  retired  life;  accordingly,  he  devoted 
himself,  with  absorbing  interest,  to  the  study  and  writing  of 
apologetic  works.  But  again  he  was  disappointed  in  his  plans, 
for  within  three  years  (1814),  he  was  induced  by  the  bishop  of 
Saint-Brieuc  to  act  as  his  private  secretary.  And  on  the  death  of 
the  prelate  the  year  following,  he  was  unanimously  elected  as 
vicar-general  of  the  diocese. 

Then  it  was  that  his  marvelous  talent  and  consummate  skill  at 
organization  and  administration  displayed  itself.  He  founded 
colleges,  seminaries  and  schools,  as  well  as  numerous  associations 
of  men  and  women.  In  fact,  it  could  be  said  that  every  movement 
in  the  diocese  which  promoted  the  honor  of  the  Church  and  the 
general  renewal  of  Christian  life,  was  either  initiated  by  him  per- 
sonally, or  won  his  hearty  support.117 

He  was  also  alert  in  combating  whatever  tended  to  impede  the 
progress  of  religion  or  destroy  Christian  faith  and  morals.  The 
very  origin  of  the  Brotherhood  may  be  traced  to  a  struggle  against 
a  movement  which  was  to  exert  a  very  baneful  influence  on  the 
education  of  the  young. 

The  movement  in  question  was  the  introduction  of  the  Lancas- 
terian  method  of  teaching118  into  the  schools  of  France.119  M.  de 

"•Laveille,  ibid.,  71  ff. 

1I7Cf.  Auvray,  ibid.,  40;  and  Laveille,  ihid.,  Vol.  1, 273. 

"•It  was  also  known  as  the  "Method  of  Mutual  Instruction"  (L'Enseigne- 
ment  Mutuel),  or  the  "Monitorial  System."  (Cf.  Buisson,  ibid.,  Pt.  I,  Vol. 
II,  1998.) 

H9Carnot,  appointed  by  Napoleon  as  Minister  of  the  Interior  during  the 
"Hundred  Days,"  had  presented  to  the  emperor  a  report  on  the  organization 
of  primary  instruction.  De  Lamennais  had  obtained  possession  of  a  copy  of 
the  document,  and  made  a  critical  study  of  it.  The  whole  program  appeared 
to  him  dangerous,  and  in  it  too  the  above  system  received  special  mention  and 
commendation.  (I^aveille,  ibid.,  232;  and  cf.  Buisson,  ibid.,  1998.)  It  is 
true,  the  Empire  collapsed  with  the  downfall  of  Napoleon,  and  before  any 
legislative  action  was  possible,  but  the  vicar-general  felt  certain  that  the  project 
as  outlined,  would  serve  as  a  basis  for  future  regulations;  and  so  it  proved. 
Carnot's  ideas  were  eventually  carried  into  effect.  One  proof  of  it  was  that  the 
advocates  of  the  Monitorial  System  were  free  to  act.  (Cf.  Laveille,  ibid.,  229,  ff.) 


46  ORIGIN    OF   THE    TEACHING    BROTHERHOODS 

Lamennais  was  entirely  adverse  to  its  adoption,  particularly  from 
a  religious  point  of  view.  He  declared  it  to  be  antireligious  in 
tendency,  and,  at  its  very  first  appearance,  he  opened  a  bold  and 
spirited  attack  against  it  both  in  speech  and  writing.120  However, 
despite  all  opposition,  it  spread  very  rapidly  throughout  the  coun- 
try,121 and  also  threatened  the  province  of  Brittany. 

It  was  then  (1817)  that  M.  de  Lamennais  thought  of  negotiating 
for  Brothers  of  de  la  Salle,  with  the  intention  of  having  them  open  a 
school  at  Saint-Brieuc.  He  would  thus  forestall  any  movement 
on  the  part  of  his  opponents,  and  at  the  same  time  guarantee  to 
the  children  of  the  city  a  thorough  religious  education. 

The  great  difficulty  was,  however,  in  securing  Brothers;  there 
was  such  a  general  demand  for  them.122  Besides,  the  vicar-general 
was  informed  that  for  the  time  being  there  were  no  Brothers  to  be 
had,  and  that  he  would  consequently  be  obliged  to  wait. 

In  his  anxiety  he  requested  the  pastor  of  Roche-Derrien,  M. 
Tresvaux,  a  man  in  whom  he  placed  the  greatest  confidence,  to 
procure  for  him  three  virtuous  and  intelligent  young  men.  The 
good  cure*  promptly  responding,  sent  him  three  courageous  young 
Bretons,  who  on  their  arrival  placed  themselves  at  once  at  the  dis- 
position of  their  ecclesiastical  superior.  They  did  not  in  the  least 
surmise  for  what  purpose  they  had  been  called.  Neither  could 
they,  for  the  reason  that  he  who  had  summoned  them  knew  not  as 
yet  himself  just  how  they  were  to  be  employed.  Nevertheless, 
they  were  to  constitute  the  first  members  of  a  great  religious  fam- 
ily, and  M.  de  Lamennais,  by  this  preliminary  action,  had  un- 
consciously opened  the  way  for  the  foundation  of  his  future 
institute. 

The  young  men  boarded  and  lodged  with  him,  while  at  the  same 
time  he  gave  them  instruction  in  French,  of  which  they  hardly 
understood  a  word.  And  when  finally  the  Brothers  arrived,  they 
too,  without  the  least  prejudice  on  their  part,  kindly  offered  to  aid 
them  in  the  acquisition  of  certain  branches  of  study.  It  was 
clearly  evident  that  they  were  being  prepared  to  assist  in  teaching. 
The  Brothers'  classes  were  rapidly  increasing  in  attendance  and 
something  would  soon  have  to  be  done  to  meet  the  congestion. 


120Cf.  Laveille,  ibid.,  240  ff. 

121Fifteen  hundred  schools  had  adopted  the  system  before  the  year  1820. 
(Monroe  Paul,  Cyclopedia  of  Education,  Vol.  IV,  296,  N.  Y.,  1913). 

122In  the  beginning  of  the  year  1818  there  were  132  cities  that  desired 
Brothers,  but  were  unable  to  receive  any.  (Laveille,  ibid.,  243.) 


BROTHERS  OF  CHRISTIAN  INSTRUCTION  OF  PLOERMEL  47 

Suddenly  one  of  the  group  died,  another  shortly  withdrew, 
leaving  but  one,  Yves  le  Fichand,  upon  whom  M.  de  Lamennais 
had  to  base  all  his  hopes.  The  future  looked  precarious,  yet  he 
did  not  despair.  He  kept  his  only  postulant,  and  by  the  following 
year  having  received  an  increase,  he  was  able  to  follow  out  his 
plans. 

His  new  teachers  were  before  long  ready  for  service,  but  there  was 
no  thought  of  opening  a  school  in  the  small  residence  of  the  vicar- 
general.  He  therefore  purchased  a  building  which  had  formerly 
served  as  a  convent  annex,  and  there  he  installed  himself  with  his 
improvised  teachers.  Within  the  inner  court  he  hastily  constructed 
two  or  three  classes.  They  were  hardly  completed  when  more  than 
two  hundred  pupils  presented  themselves  begging  for  admission. 

The  people  of  the  neighboring  country  districts  hearing  that  the 
vicar-general  had  opened  a  new  free  school,  immediately  availed 
themselves  of  the  opportunity  of  sending  their  children  to  be 
properly  instructed. 

Very  soon  the  new  building  also  was  taxed  to  its  utter  capacity 
and  consequently  many  pupils  had  to  be  refused.  The  reverend 
director  had  made  a  regulation  to  accept  only  such  children  whose 
parents  were  resident  in  Saint-Brieuc.  But,  on  the  other  hand,  he 
could  not  help  being  deeply  touched  in  seeing  so  many  young  souls 
abandoned  to  themselves  without  hope  of  receiving  the  blessings 
of  a  Christian  education.  And,  as  he  mentally  viewed  the  sur- 
rounding country  districts  which  he  had  visited  while  attending  to 
his  ministerial  duties,  a  plan  suddenly  occurred  to  him.  There 
were  few  establishments  of  Brothers  and  several  monitorial  schools  in 
the  principal  cities,  but  as  regards  free  primary  schools  for  the  boys 
of  the  country  districts,  not  a  single  one  existed  at  that  time  in  the 
whole  province  of  Brittany.123  Many  of  the  communes  were  so 
very  poor  that  there  was  no  thought  of  supplying  them  with  lay 
teachers,  because  of  the  expense  of  maintenance;  and  neither 
was  it  possible  to  secure  Brothers  of  de  la  Salle,  since  their  rule  did 
not  permit  them  to  work  singly.124  Therefore,  when  the  cure's  from 
the  environs  of  Saint-Brieuc  pressingly  implored  the  vicar-general 
not  to  refuse  the  children  sent  him,  the  following  idea  suggested 


mLaveille,  ibid.,  321  ff.  That  such  schools,  however,  existed  throughout 
Brittany  prior  to  the  Revolution  may  be  amply  substantiated  by  very  reliable 
evidence.  (Cf.  Allain,  ibid.,  109  ff.) 

lMSee  above,  p.  33. 


48  ORIGIN    OF   THE   TEACHING    BROTHERHOODS 

itself  to  his  mind,  namely,  that  if  these  good  pastors  were  so  desir- 
ous about  having  teachers  for  their  little  boys,  would  they  not  be 
willing  to  make  some  sacrifices  in  behalf  of  the  former?  They 
would,  no  doubt,  consent,  in  consideration  for  a  light  indemnity, 
to  house  at  least  one  teacher,  who,  besides  keeping  class,  could  be 
of  some  extra  service  to  them. 

Furthermore,  in  following  up  this  line  of  thought,  de  Lamennais 
concluded  that,  as  the  above  seemed  feasible,  he  could  easily  form 
a  regular  religious  community  of  men  whose  life  would  be  conse- 
crated to  this  humble  task.  Thus  had  he  finally  arrived  at  a  clear 
conception  of  the  Brotherhood.125 

Without  delay  he  put  his  project  into  execution,  and  before  long 
was  able  to  furnish  teachers  to  the  most  needy  country  parishes 
immediately  surrounding  Saint-Brieuc.  His  object  was  not  to 
establish  schools  in  every  commune,  and  in  proportion  to  the  num- 
ber of  his  teachers;  but,  on  the  contrary,  he  founded  schools  only 
in  certain  district  centers  and  in  the  principal  communes,  for  the 
double  reason:  (1)  many  localities  could  not  bring  together  a 
sufficient  number  of  pupils  to  render  the  school  self-supporting; 
and  (2)  he  desired  to  keep  a  number  of  teachers  in  reserve. 

By  these  precautionary  measures  de  Lamennais  expected  to 
meet  all  reasonable  demands,  but  the  plans  did  not  wholly  mate- 
rialize. His  supply  of  teachers  was  soon  exhausted,  and  as  the 
number  of  requests  still  increased,  he  became  more  and  more 
embarrassed  as  how  best  to  relieve  the  situation.  He  saw  no 
prospects  of  meeting  the  difficulty  until  Providence  came  to  his 
assistance. 

While  on  one  of  his  missions  he  met  the  vicar-general  of  the 
diocese  of  Vannes,  M.  Gabriel  Deshayes,  and  in  course  of  conver- 
sation discovered  that  they  had  exactly  the  same  idea  regarding 
the  question  of  free  primary  schools.  Their  individual  projects 
seemed  to  have  been  executed  along  exactly  parallel  lines.  In 
parting  at  the  time,  they  entertained  the  hope  of  some  day  uniting 
their  interests.126 

M.  Deshayes,  whom  Providence  had  destined  to  be  the  auxiliary 
of  de  Lamennais,  was  born  at  Beignon  (Department  of  Morbihan, 
Brittany),  December  6,  1767.  He  was  sent  to  college  in  early 
youth,  and  though  not  exceptionally  brilliant  in  intellectual  pur- 


1S5Cf.  Laveille,  ibid.,  323. 
126Cf.  Ibid.,  325. 


BROTHERS  OF  CHRISTIAN  INSTRUCTION  OF  PLOERMEL  49 

suits,  lie  distinguished  himself  the  more  so  in  moral  qualifications. 
He  also  studied  for  the  priesthood  and  at  the  outbreak  of  the  Revo- 
lution he  escaped  to  England  where  he  was  ordained.  Immedi- 
ately after  he  returned  to  the  continent,  and  throughout  the  entire 
period  of  his  country's  political  and  social  agitation,  he  bravely 
faced  death  in  the  exercise  of  his  sacred  ministry. 

After  the  Revolution  he  was  still  more  active  in  the  work  of 
reparation  and  general  re-awakening  of  the  Christian  spirit  among 
souls.  But  it  was  especially  when  appointed  vicar-general  of 
Vannes  that,  like  his  distinguished  colleague  of  the  North,  he 
accomplished  the  most  good.  He  also  founded  works  very  much 
analogous  to  those  of  M.  de  Lamennais,  and  in  a  similar  manner 
extended  his  zeal  beyond  the  limits  of  his  diocese.  As  referred  to 
above,  he  was  instrumental  in  the  foundation  of  a  number  of  com- 
munities of  men  and  women,127  and  thus  in  every  way  labored  for 
the  restoration  of  the  kingdom  of  Christ  among  his  countrymen. 
He  too  had  introduced  the  Brothers  of  de  la  Salle  into  his  own 
parish  of  Auray,  but  he  could  not  at  the  same  time  remain  insen- 
sible to  the  constant  and  earnest  entreaties  of  the  neighboring 
country  cure's  in  regard  to  the  education  of  the  children  under  their 
charge.  And,  again,  just  as  M.  de  Lamennais,  he  had  acted  on 
the  idea  of  forming  an  association  of  teachers  for  this  especial 
apostolate.128 

The  five  young  men  with  whom  he  began  (1816)  resided  with 
him  in  the  same  dwelling,  and  were  prepared  for  their  future  work 
by  the  conjoint  efforts  of  himself  and  the  Brothers.  All,  however, 
did  not  persevere.  Three  of  the  number  decided  to  leave,  and  a 
fourth,  having  proved  altogether  incapable,  had  to  be  returned  to 
his  parents:  the  fifth,  named  Mathurin  Provost,  alone  remained 
faithful. 

Six  months  passed  before  another  candidate  presented  himself; 
but  this  latter  was  almost  immediately  followed  by  a  number  of 
others,  and  in  a  short  time  the  little  community  was  firmly  estab- 
lished. As  a  rule  of  life  M.  Deshayes  adopted  a  form  based  on  the 
Rules  and  Regulations  of  the  Institute  of  St.  de  la  Salle.129 

By  September,  1817,  the  number  of  teachers  had  reached  seven, 
and  soon  the  founder  could  provide  one  or  the  other  poor  parish 


.thovr,  p.  40. 
lS8Cf.  L:ivoill(%  ibid.,  330. 
'"Ibid.,  331. 


50  ORIGIN    OF   THE   TEACHING    BROTHERHOODS 

with  the  needed  help.  The  resources  of  the  worthy  cure,  however, 
were  very  limited,  and  the  time  arrived  when  he  was  at  a  loss  to 
tell  how  he  could  any  longer  maintain  his  little  novitiate. 

It  was  at  this  juncture  that  he  made  the  acquaintance  of  M.  de 
Lamennais,  as  noted  above.  Both  had  recognized  that  it  would 
be  to  their  mutual  advantage  to  combine  their  efforts.  However, 
before  any  definite  steps  were  taken,  they  reciprocally  aided  one 
another  according  to  their  respective  means.  What  one  lacked 
the  other  was  able  to  supply.  For  example,  M.  Deshayes  fur- 
nished his  associate  with  a  number  of  teachers,  while  M.  de  Lamen- 
nais, on  his  part,  provided  the  necessary  pecuniary  assistance. 

Thus  matters  proceeded  until  June,  1819,  when  the  founders 
again  met  at  Saint-Brieuc  to  discuss  the  question  of  the  final  union 
of  the  two  works.  After  eight  days'  deliberation  they  concluded 
by  drawing  up  a  written  agreement  according  to  which  the  double 
institute  was  to  be  provisionally  governed.  Besides  defining  the 
general  purpose  of  the  congregation — already  stated130 — the  docu- 
ment contained  the  following  principal  points:  (1)  The  two  novi- 
tiates, one  at  Auray  and  the  other  at  Saint-Brieuc,  were  to  be  under 
the  direction  of  M.  Deshayes  and  M.  de  Lamennais,  respectively; 
(2)  the  novices  were  to  follow  as  much  as  possible  the  Rules  of  the 
Christian  Brothers,  and  also  use  their  method  of  instruction;  (3) 
each  superior  was  to  have  jurisdiction  over  all  the  Brothers  in  his 
own  diocese,  as  also  over  such  as  he  would  place  in  any  other;  and 
(4)  in  due  time  one  of  the  Brothers  was  to  be  chosen  as  superior 
general  of  the  institute.131  The  paper  was  duly  signed  by  both 
superiors,  and  dated  June  6,  1819. 

As  the  above-mentioned  rules  appertained  only  to  the  daily  order 
of  exercises  observed  by  the  two  communities,  de  Lamennais  later 
added  certain  articles  on  internal  government,  in  the  formulation  of 
which  he  again  drew  his  inspiration  from  the  Rules  of  Government 
of  the  Brothers  of  the  Christian  Schools.™ 

In  September,  1820,  de  Lamennais,  desirous  of  creating  a  more 
common  feeling  of  brotherhood  among  the  members,  and  also  of 
guaranteeing  to  the  congregation  greater  firmness  and  stability, 
assembled  all  the  Brothers — they  numbered  then  about  fifty — of 
both  dioceses  at  Auray  for  the  exercise  of  a  general  retreat.  The 


«30See  p.  47. 
M1Laveille,  ibid.,  333. 
""Ibid.,  343. 


BROTHERS  OF  CHRISTIAN  INSTRUCTION  OF  PLOERMEL  51 

name  of  " Brothers  of  Christian  Instruction"  (Freres  de  V Instruc- 
tion chretienne)  was  officially  adopted,  and  on  the  closing  day  of 
the  meeting  all  the  Brothers  were  solemnly  invested  with  the 
religious  habit,  while  at  the  same  time  some  of  the  members  took 
the  vow  of  obedience  for  one  year.  Thus  another  religious  con- 
gregation was  added  to  the  Church.133 

The  Brothers  afterwards  returned  to  their  various  posts  of  duty, 
and  continued  to  labor  in  the  interests  of  the  institute.  Nothing 
apparently  impeded  its  progress,  until  suddenly  an  event  occurred 
which,  while  it  greatly  affected  existing  conditions,  also  seemed  for 
the  moment  to  endanger  the  spirit  of  union  that  prevailed  among 
the  members.  M.  Deshayes  had  been  selected  January  12,  1821, 
as  superior  of  the  community  of  Brothers  of  St.  Gabriel134  and  in 
March  he  left  for  his  new  field  of  labor.  The  formal  separation 
from  the  Brothers  of  Christian  Instruction  took  place  during  the 
month  of  May  following.  All  the  members  of  the  institute  met  at 
Auray,  and  after  making  a  retreat,  the  former  novices  of  M. 
Deshayes  were  divided  into  two  groups.  Some  were  to  follow 
their  superior  to  la  Vende*e,  and  the  others  were  ceded  to  M.  de 
Lamennais. 

Although  M.  Deshayes  had  thus  outwardly  severed  his  connec- 
tions with  his  former  colleague,  their  contract  of  1819  still  held 
good,  at  least  as  far  as  the  nominal  superiorship  was  concerned. 
De  Lamennais,  of  course,  was  henceforth  regarded  as  the  actual 
superior,  and  he  accordingly  took  over  the  entire  management  of 
the  community.  M.  Deshayes,  on  his  part,  always  retained  the 
tenderest  attachment  to  the  Brothers,  and  every  year  presided 
with  de  Lamennais  at  their  general  retreat. 

On  the  first  of  May,  1822,  the  institute  was  legally  authorized. 
Two  years  later  (1824),  the  central  novitiate  of  Josselin  was  trans- 
ferred to  Ploermel  (Department  Morbihan),  which  place  became 
in  time  the  principal  seat  of  government  in  the  society;  by  it  too, 
the  Brotherhood  was  popularly  known.135 

The  Holy  See  recognized  the  congregation  by  Brief  of  commen- 
dation, dated  February  1,  1851. 


lMCf.  Ibid.,  346. 
lMSee  above,  p.  40  ff . 


Auvray,  ibid.,  67;  Laveille,  ibid.,  Vol.  II,  2  ff,  and  Catholic  Ency- 
clopedia, Vol.  VIII,  776.  (The  Brothers  are  also  often  designated  as  the 
"Lamennais  Brothers"  or  the  "Brothers  of  Ploermel.") 


52  ORIGIN    OF   THE   TEACHING    BROTHERHOODS 

De  Lamennais  survived  the  occasion  by  almost  ten  years,  his 
death  occurring  December  26,  1860,  and  as  he  had  provided,  one 
of  the  Brothers  (Frere  Cyprien)  was  elected  superior  general 
shortly  afterward. 

In  March,  1891,  Pope  Leo  XIII  accorded  the  institute  the 
canonical  approbation,  and  finally  Pius  X  definitely  approved  its 
constitutions. 

The  Brotherhood  at  present  is  in  very  flourishing  condition,  and 
by  its  educational  activities  exerts  a  marked  influence,  particularly 
among  French-speaking  peoples.  According  to  the  personnel  of 
1903  the  congregation  counted  3,000  members,  with  460  estab- 
lishments, and  gave  instruction  to  more  than  75,000  pupils.136 

MARIST  BROTHERS  OF  THE  SCHOOLS     (1817) 

The  same  need  that  called  forth  the  institute  treated  above,  is 
also  clearly  evident  in  regard  to  the  origin  of  the  present  one,  the 
"  Congregation  of  the  Marist  Brothers/'  or,  as  commonly  known, 
the  "Little  Brothers  of  Mary"  (Les  Petits-Freres  de  Marie),  whose 
founder  was  the  Ven.  Joseph  Benedict  Marcellin  Champagnat, 
a  priest  and  member  of  the  Marist  Fathers  of  the  diocese  of  Lyons, 
France.  Aware  of  the  lamentable  ignorance  prevailing  among  the 
poor  peasant  children,  especially  in  matters  of  religion,  he  was 
prompted  to  found  his  society  to  meet  this  particular  need. 

The  holy  priest  was  born  May  20,  1789,  at  Marlhes,  in  the 
department  of  the  Loire.  Though  very  pious  from  early  youth, 
it  was  only  later  when  about  16  years  of  age  that  he  showed  any 
inclination  for  the  higher  life.  Accordingly  in  1805  he  entered 
the  seminary  of  Verrieres  with  the  intention  of  studying  for  the 
priesthood.  He  had  some  difficulty  at  the  start,  but  with  close 
application  and  persevering  effort  he  was  able  in  time  to  make 
considerable  progress. 

On  the  completion  of  the  course  (October,  1812),  he  was  trans- 
ferred to  the  diocesan  seminary  of  Lyons. 

It  was  while  here  that  M.  Colin,  a  fellow-student  of  his,  initiated 
the  idea  of  founding  the  Society  of  Marist  Fathers.  M.  Cham- 
pagnat at  once  tendered  his  hearty  cooperation,  and  soon  a  little 
band  of  chosen  seminarists  formed  the  nucleus  of  the  future  founda- 


136In  1910  the  province  of  Canada,  for  example,  had  a  membership  of  225 
Brothers. 


MARIST    BROTHERS   OF   THE    SCHOOLS  53 

tion.  The  idea  of  Teaching  Brothers  constituting  a  separate 
Branch  of  the  society  was  a  suggestion  of  M.  Champagnat;  he 
insisted  that  they  would  be  not  only  useful  to  the  missionaries  but 
even  necessary.  "We  must  have  Brothers,"  he  would  often 
repeat,  "we  must  have  Brothers  to  teach  class  and  instruct  the 
children.  .  .  .  My  first  education  was  defective  because  of 
the  lack  of  competent  teachers;  I  shall  be  happy  to  procure  for 
others  what  I  myself  have  been  deprived  of."137 

The  origin  of  his  idea  of  the  Brotherhood  may  be  traced  to  two 
sources:  (1)  the  direct  inspiration  of  Providence;  and  (2)  his  own 
observation  and  experience  in  teaching  the  children  in  the  neigh- 
borhood of  his  home  during  the  seminary  vacation  time.  He  fre- 
quently had  occasion  to  bear  witness  to  the  almost  total  lack  of 
religious  knowledge  existing  in  some  of  the  homes  of  the  poor 
country  people;138  hence  his  incessant  appeals  for  Brothers. 

His  companions  at  the  seminary  finally  answered  him  as  he  was 
so  insistent  about  the  matter:  "Since  you  have  the  idea,  it  is  for 
you  to  bring  about  its  realization."139  And  he  did  indeed  from 
this  day  forth  devote  all  his  energy  toward  having  his  plans 
incorporated  in  the  new  society. 

Shortly  after  his  ordination  (July  22,  1816),  he  was  appointed  as 
curate  of  Lavalla,  a  little  mountain  village  of  about  two  thousand 
population,  situated  near  St.  Chamond  (Loire).  He  acquitted 
himself  with  great  zeal  and  devotedness  in  the  exercise  of  his  parish 
duties,  but  especially  did  he  attend  to  the  instruction  of  the  chil- 
dren. 

He  was  thus  unconsciously  developing  and  strengthening  more 
and  more  the  idea  of  his  future  undertaking.  In  fact,  he  constantly 
kept  it  in  mind,  and  only  waited  until  Providence  would  furnish 
the  occasion  and  the  means  to  put  his  project  into  execution.  This 
was  not  long  delayed,  for  soon  an  event  occurred  which  brought 
Father  Champagnat  to  take  action  in  the  matter.  Called  to  hear 
the  confession  of  a  little  boy  who  was  very  dangerously  ill,  he  dis- 
covered that  the  lad  knew  hardly  anything  about  God  or  religion. 
And  for  two  hours  the  good  priest  had  to  instruct  the  poor  boy 
before  he  was  sufficiently  prepared  to  receive  the  sacrament.  He 
died  almost  immediately  afterwards. 

l>1Life  and  Spirit  of  J.  B.  M.  Champagnat  (by  a  Marist  Brother),  22,  N.  Y. 
1887;  and  Le  Tres  Reverend  Pere  Colin,  Vol.  V,  Pt.  II,  397,  Lyons,  1895. 
'"Life  of  Father  Champagnat,  ibid.,  16  ff. 
l39Li/e  of  the  Venerable  Father  Colin  (by  a  Marist  Father),288,  St.  Louis,  1909. 


54  ORIGIN   OF  THE   TEACHING   BROTHERHOODS 

The  incident  made  such  an  impression  on  the  future  founder 
that  he  resolved  then  and  there  to  begin  the  work.  A  very  pious 
young  man,  named  Jean-Marie  Granjon,  whom  Father  Cham- 
pagnat  had  selected  a  long  time  before  as  a  possible  future  subject, 
was  asked  whether  he  would  consent  to  become  a  member  of  the 
proposed  society.  Jean  had  learned  to  regard  his  spiritual  father 
with  particular  affection  and  feelings  of  gratitude,  for  he  had  been 
taught  by  him  how  to  read  and  write,  as  well  as  instructed  in 
religion  with  more  than  ordinary  care  and  attention.  It  is  not 
surprising,  therefore,  that  the  young  man  should  have  expressed 
his  willingness  to  comply  with  the  wishes  of  the  founder.  "I  am 
at  your  service,"  he  answered,  "do  with  me  as  you  will."140 

Very  much  encouraged  by  this  first  success,  Father  Champagnat 
fervently  prayed  Almighty  God  to  send  him  further  assistance. 
His  patience  was  soon  rewarded.  One  day  a  boy,  Jean-Baptiste 
Audras  by  name,  called  at  the  rectory  to  see  him.  He  related  how 
he  had  for  some  time  harbored  the  idea  of  entering  the  religious 
life,  and  that  he  had  actually  attempted  to  join  the  Brothers  of 
St.  de  la  Salle,  but  was  told  that  he  was  too  young.  Disappointed, 
but  not  discouraged,  he  had  thus  come  to  seek  the  advice  of  his 
confessor. 

For  a  moment  Father  Champagnat  seemed  in  doubt  how  he 
should  answer  the  boy.  But  suddenly  as  if  inspired  he  suggested 
to  him  that  he  come  and  be  the  companion  of  Granjon,  who  was 
then  living  next  to  the  presbytery.  And  with  the  promise  of 
receiving  further  instruction,  the  little  fellow  left  to  obtain  the 
consent  of  his  parents. 

The  latter  made  no  objection  to  the  proposal  of  Father  Cham- 
pagnat, as  they  regarded  his  action  as  a  special  mark  of  kindness  on 
his  part;  besides  it  afforded  them  an  excellent  means  of  educating 
their  son  at  very  little  expense. 

After  some  time  the  founder  disclosed  to  his  young  postulant  the 
object  and  purpose  of  the  society  he  intended  to  found,  and  asked 
him  if  he  desired  to  join.  Without  the  least  hesitation  he  was 
answered :  "  You  may  do  with  me  what  you  think  fit,  provided  I  be 
a  religious."141  The  second  member  of  the  future  institute  was 
secured. 


140Life  of  Father  Champagnat,  ibid.,  43. 
.,  45. 


MARIST    BROTHERS    OF   THE    SCHOOLS  55 

Father  Champagnat's  next  thought  was  to  provide  suitable 
accommodations  for  his  young  community.  With  this  intention 
he  bought  a  vacant  building  near  the  presbytery,  which  he  himself 
put  in  proper  repair  for  habitation.142  When  he  had  at  last 
furnished  it  with  whatever  was  absolutely  necessary,  he  had  his 
two  young  novices  occupy  the  place.  And  thus  on  January  2, 
1817,  was  laid  the  foundation  of  the  Institute  of  the  Little  Brothers 
of  Mary. 

In  the  beginning  the  little  community  employed  the  day  chiefly 
in  labor  and  study,  interrupted  occasionally  by  a  few  simple  pious 
practices. 

By  spring  one  more  postulant  arrived.  At  this  time  too,  the 
parents  of  Jean-Baptiste  Audras  becoming  aware  of  the  real 
nature  of  the  life  their  son  had  adopted,  desired  him  to  return  home. 
They  were,  however,  unsuccessful  in  their  endeavors  to  induce  him 
to  renounce  the  choice  he  had  made,  and  he  was  finally  allowed  to 
remain.  Not  only  this;  he  had  the  great  pleasure  of  seeing  his 
elder  brother  also  become  a  member  of  the  institute. 

The  number  of  subjects  gradually  increasing,  Father  Cham- 
pagnat  deemed  it  necessary  to  introduce  a  kind  of  government  and 
organization  which  would  be  more  comformable  to  religious  life. 
He  did  not  at  first  regularly  live  with  the  community.  Hence  a 
Brother  director  was  chosen  to  act  in  his  stead ;  a  uniform  costume 
was  adopted ;  and  a  daily  rule  prescribed  which  regulated  the  time 
to  be  devoted  to  the  various  spiritual  exercises,  as  well  as  the  other 
occupations  of  the  day.143  The  following  act  of  consecration  and 
promises  constituted  for  the  time  being  their  engagements  to  the 
society:  "  For  the  greater  glory  of  God  and  the  honor  of  the  august 
Virgin  Mary,  Mother  of  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ.  We,  the  under- 
signed, certify  and  declare  that  we  freely  and  willingly  consecrate 
ourselves  to  God  in  the  humble  Association  of  the  Little  Brothers 
of  Mary  for  five  years,  beginning  from  this  day,  for  the  purpose  of 
laboring  continually,  by  the  practice  of  every  virtue,  for  our  own 
sanctification  and  the  Christian  education  of  country  children. 
We  therefore  purpose:  (1)  To  seek  only  the  glory  of  God,  the  honor 
of  the  august  Virgin  Mary,  Mother  of  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ,  and 
the  good  of  the  Holy  Roman  Catholic  and  Apostolic  Church. 


»«Cf .  ibid. 
"'Ibid.,  49. 


56  ORIGIN    OF   THE    TEACHING    BROTHERHOODS 

"  (2)  We  engage  to  teach  gratuitously  all  the  poor  children  whom 
the  parish  priest  may  send  us;  and  to  instruct  them,  and  all  the 
other  children  confided  to  us,  in  catechism,  prayers,  reading, 
writing,  and  the  other  branches  of  primary  instruction,  according 
to  their  needs. 

"  (3)  We  promise  implicit  obedience  to  our  superior,  and  to  all 
those  who  shall  be  appointed  by  him  to  guide  and  direct  us. 

"  (4)  We  promise  to  observe  chastity. 

"(5)  We  shall  share  everything  we  have  in  common."144 

Father  Champagnat  also  longed  for  the  time  when  his  Brothers 
would  be  able  to  assume  control  of  the  school  at  Lavalla.  Mean- 
time he  had  them  assist  at  the  classes,  and  thus  learn  the  methods145 
of  teaching  by  personal  observation.  Their  first  real  attempt  at 
instruction  was  in  the  poor  hamlets  of  the  parish.  They  would 
teach  in  these  places  during  the  day  and  return  home  in  the  evening. 

After  a  year's  experience  the  Brothers  took  charge  of  the  Lavalla 
parish  school,  and  though  they  may  have  been  lacking  in  extensive 
knowledge  and  refinement,  they  more  than  compensated  for  these 
deficiencies  by  the  excellent  discipline  they  maintained,  as  also  by 
the  thorough  religious  instruction  they  imparted  to  the  children. 
The  reputation  that  the  Brothers  thereby  acquired  was  soon  made 
evident  by  the  number  of  schools  they  established  in  different  sec- 
tions of  the  surrounding  country.  Their  work  as  teachers  seemed 
assured. 

As  referred  to  above  Father  Champagnat  could  not  always  be 
with  the  Brothers;  but  this  condition  was  altered  in  1824,  when  at 
last  he  was  released  from  regular  parish  duties.  Henceforth  being 
free  to  live  with  the  community  he  could  devote  his  undivided 
attention  to  the  formation  of  his  subjects  and  to  the  general  inter- 
ests of  the  society.  He  was  not,  however,  without  his  trials.  A 
number  of  defections  among  the  Brothers  together  with  intense 
opposition  on  the  part  of  certain  ecclesiastical  superiors  at  one 
time  even  threatened  the  existence  of  the  institute.146 

The  departure  of  some  of  the  members  of  the  community  con- 
vinced the  founder  that  it  would  be  more  conducive  to  the  sta- 
bility of  the  Brothers  if  they  were  allowed  to  take  the  religious 
vows.  Therefore,  at  the  close  of  the  retreat  of  1826  they  were 

144Ibid.,  114. 

145The  form  of  instruction  was  that  of  the  "Simultaneous  Method"  of  St. 
de  la  Salle,  which  the  Brothers  later  adopted  throughout  their  schools. 
146Life  of  Father  Champagnat,  ibid.,  108  ff. 


MAKIST    BROTHERS    OF   THE    SCHOOLS  57 

granted  the  privilege  of  taking  the  temporary  vow  of  obedience; 
the  vows  of  chastity  and  poverty  were  added  later  when  assuming 
perpetual  engagements.147 

The  rules  of  the  institute,  it  would  seem,  were  chiefly  the  work 
of  the  founder;  nothing  is  mentioned  specifically  in  reference  to 
their  origin. 

Father  Champagnat,  as  stated  in  the  beginning,  had  always 
desired  the  Brothers  to  be  one  with  the  Marist  Fathers.  Accord- 
ing to  him  both  Fathers  and  Brothers  were  to  constitute  two 
branches  of  the  same  society  under  one  superior.  However,  his 
own  superior,  Very  Rev.  Father  Colin,148  believed  that  the  Broth- 
ers should  have  a  separate  existence,  and  their  own  superior,  rules 
and  government.  He  advocated,  therefore,  that  the  Brothers 
make  choice  of  a  successor  to  Father  Champagnat,  and  that  very 
soon,  as  the  latter 's  health  was  rapidly  failing.  Accordingly,  in 
1839  an  election  was  held  and  Brother  Francois  was  named  supe- 
rior general,  with  two  other  Brothers  as  first  and  second  assis- 
tants.149 And  as  expected,  in  June  the  following  year  (1840) 
Father  Champagnat  died. 

The  new  superior,  Brother  Francois,  immediately  assumed  full 
control  of  affairs,  and  his  first  important  action  was  the  fusion  of 
the  Congregation  of  Brothers  of  Christian  Instruction  of  Saint-Paul- 
Trois-Chdteaux  (diocese  of  Valence,  Dauphin^)  with  his  own  insti- 
tute. The  former,  also  a  teaching  congregation,  was  founded 
November,  1821,  at  the  little  city  above  named,  and  had  for  its 
purpose  the  instruction  of  the  poor  children  of  the  province.  It 
originated  with  the  cure*  of  the  parish,  M.  Sollier  de  Lestang,  who 
had  succeeded  in  inducing  a  number  of  young  men  to  consecrate 
their  lives  to  this  noble  work.  An  old  Dominican  convent  served 
as  their  first  home.  The  good  pastor  could  not,  however,  attend 
properly  to  both  the  parish  and  his  new  undertaking,  so  he  confided 
the  young  men  to  the  care  of  an  arduous  and  zealous  priest,  M. 

I47lbid.,  115. 

"8The  foundation  of  the  Society  of  Marist  Fathers  dates  from  1816,  but 
only  in  1836  (the  year  of  its  canonical  approval  by  Rome)  did  the  members 
t:ikr  first  religious  engagements.  At  this  time,  too,  the  founder,  Rev.  Father 
Colin,  was  elected  superior  general.  The  year  following  he  officially  appointed 
Father  Champagnat  as  superior  of  the  Little  Brothers  of  Mary.  (Cf.  Life 
of  Rev.  Father  Colin,  ibid.,  117,  129.) 

14The  question  of  union  between  the  two  societies  had  been  agitated  for 
some  time,  by  both  Father  Champagnat  and  the  Brothers.  Rome,  however, 
definitely  decided  (1845)  in  favor  of  separation.  (Cf.  Le  Tres  R6v.  Pere 
Colin,  ibid.,  414  ff.) 


58  ORIGIN   OF   THE   TEACHING    BROTHERHOODS 

Mazelier,  with  the  understanding  that  he  convert  the  little  group 
into  a  regular  pongregation. 

Some  months  after  this  transfer  M.  de  Lestang  died,  and  (1827) 
1'abbe"  Mazelier  was  appointed  his  successor.  But,  as  in  the  former 
case,  the  additional  burden  of  pastoral  duties  proved  a  great 
hindrance  to  the  development  and  progress  of  the  community. 
Neither  did  the  fact  of  its  being  legally  authorized  (June  11,  1823) 
tend  to  better  its  condition.  M.  Mazelier  was  eventually  con- 
vinced that  he  must  seek  a  union  of  his  Brothers  with  some  other 
congregation.  While  determined  on  this  course  of  action  he  prov- 
identially became  acquainted  (1833)  with  the  founder  of  the  Little 
Brothers  of  Mary,  and  a  regular  correspondence  was  begun  in 
view  of  the  possible  fusion  of  the  two  bodies.  No  definite  action 
was  taken,  however,  until  April,  1842,  when,  according  to  agree- 
ment, the  union  was  concluded  on  the  following  basis: 

"  (1)  That  the  Brothers,  when  united,  should  have  but  one  and 
the  same  object,  one  and  the  same  rule,  one  and  the  same  govern- 
ment. 

"(2)  That  the  Brothers  of  Saint-Paul-Trois-Chateaux  should 
acknowledge  the  authority  of  Brother  Frangois,  and  submit  to 
him  in  all  things,  according  to  rule;  that  they  should  adopt  the 
costume  and  rule  of  the  Little  Brothers  of  Mary;  in  a  word,  that 
the  two  communities  should  form  one  body,  and  should  have  the 
same  superior  general." 

At  the  time  of  the  fusion  the  community  of  M.  Mazelier  counted 
forty  Brothers,  thirteen  establishments  and  twelve  postulants.150 

Two  years  later  (1844),  a  second  congregation  united  with  the 
Marist  Brothers,  namely,  the  Brothers  of  Christian  Instruction  of 
Viviers,  founded  in  1810,  by  the  Venerable  M.  Vernet,  at  Notre- 
Dame-de-Bon-Secours  (diocese  of  Viviers,  Languedoc).  It,  too, 
was  a  teaching  organization,  and  likewise  approved  by  the  State 
(1826). 

Neither  did  this  Brotherhood  make  any  progress,  one  great 
cause  of  weakness  being  the  absence  of  vows.  And  to  save  it  from 
utter  disappearance  the  founder  solicited  and  obtained  its  amalga- 
mation with  the  Little  Brothers  of  Mary.  Like  the  first  men- 
tioned it  also  had  forty  Brothers,  thirteen  houses  and  twenty 
novices.151 


*60Life  of  Father  Champagnat,  ibid.,  137,  195;  also  cf.  Laveille  (Lamennais), 
ibid.,  Vol.11,  137  ff. 

161Life  of  Father  Champagnat,  ibid.,  195  ff. 


BROTHERS   OF   THE    SOCIETY    OF    MARY  59 

One  reason  which  induced  the  Little  Brothers  of  Mary  to  enter 
into  alliance  with  the  above  congregations  was  the  fact  that  the 
latter  were  both  sanctioned  by  the  Government :  a  fact  also  which 
greatly  facilitated  relations  between  the  combined  Brotherhood 
and  the  State  authorities,  at  least  to  a  certain  extent.152 

Father  Champagnat  had  repeatedly  made  attempts  to  obtain 
legal  recognition  for  his  institute,  but  witout  success.163  The  favor 
was  finally  granted  June  20,  1851;  the  authorization  besides 
included  the  whole  of  France. 

The  papal  approbation  of  the  institute  was  obtained  January 
9,  1863. 

Such  was  the  growth  of  the  congregation  that  in  1910  it  num- 
bered upwards  of  6,000  members,  with  establishments  spread 
throughout  Europe  and  other  parts  of  the  world.154 

BROTHERS  OF  THE  SOCIETY  OF  MARY     (1817) 

The  members  of  this  society  are  commonly  known  as  the  Broth- 
ers of  Mary,  or  Marianists,  as  distinguished  from  the  "Marist 
Brothers,"  or  "Little  Brothers  of  Mary"  treated  above.  The 
present  congregation  had  as  founder  the  Very  Rev.  William  Joseph 
Chaminade,  Missionary  Apostolic  and  Honorary  Canon  of  the 
Metropolitan  Church  of  Bordeaux,  a  man  who  takes  rank  among 
the  foremost  leaders  of  the  religious  and  educational  reform  move- 
ment in  France  during  the  early  nineteenth  century. 

He  was  born  at  Pe>igueux,  in  the  province  of  Pe"rigord,  France, 
April  8,  1761,  the  last  of  thirteen  children.  His  first  years  were 
passed  in  the  atmosphere  of  a  home  blessed  by  the  practical 
Christian  faith  and  example  of  parents,  brothers  and  sisters.155 

In  time  he  was  sent  to  the  neighboring  city  of  Mussidan  to  pur- 
sue his  classical  studies  at  the  college  in  which  his  brother  John  was 
employed  as  professor.156  Another  brother  of  his,  Louis,  had  pre- 

l"One  effect  of  the  union  was  that  the  members  of  the  whole  institute  were 
exempted  from  military  service.  (Ibid.,  197.)  1MIbid.,  136,  158  ff. 

lMIn  1903,  just  previous  to  the  enforcement  of  the  "Law  of  Secularization," 
the  society  had  750  schools  in  France  alone.  In  North  and  South  America 
the  Brothers  conduct  at  the  present  time  more  than  150  educational  estab- 
lishments embracing  colleges,  academies  and  common  schools.  (The  Catholic 
Church  in  the  U.  S.,  ibid.,  307.) 

1&6Among  the  boys  two  of  the  oldest,  John  and  Blaise,  entered  religion,  one 
became  a  Jesuit,  and  the  other  joined  the  order  of  Recollects. 

"•After  the  suppression  of  the  Jesuits  in  1762  he  returned  to  Perigueux, 
was  ordained  priest,  and  shortly  afterward  took  service  at  the  above  college. 
He  was  Doctor  of  Divinity,  and' remarkable  besides  for  his  extraordinary  piety 
and  austere  penitential  life. 


60  ORIGIN    OF   THE    TEACHING    BROTHERHOODS 

ceded  him  by  two  years,  and  thus  both  followed  the  same  course 
preparatory  for  the  priesthood.  The  thorough  Christian  spirit 
that  reigned  in  the  college  was  a  guarantee  that  the  education  the 
boys  were  to  receive  would  be  fully  in  keeping  with  the  funda- 
mental religious  principles  first  inculcated  in  the  home. 

Joseph157  Chaminade  was  truly  a  privileged  soul.  From  earliest 
childhood  he  had  already  evinced  that  singular  piety  which  was  to 
shed  such  lustre  on  his  after  career.  He  received  his  First  Holy 
Communion  at  the  college,  and  it  was  then  that  the  grace  of  God 
seemed  to  manifest  itself  in  a  special  manner.  One  day  after  hav- 
ing communicated  he  felt  a  strong  impulse  to  consecrate  himself 
to  the  Lord,  and,  docile  to  the  spiritual  direction  of  his  brother,  he 
generously  and  unreservedly  offered  himself  to  his  Divine  Master, 
placing  at  His  disposal  every  aspiration  of  his  heart  and  even  his 
very  life.  He  seemed  assured  that  his  offering  was  accepted,  and 
that  God  had  destined  him  for  His  service.  Not  content  with 
merely  the  practice  of  the  ordinary  virtues,  he  at  the  same  time 
endeavored  to  observe  the  evangelical  counsels.  His  brother 
gradually  initiated  him  into  the  practice  of  mental  prayer,  and 
finally  permitted  him  even  to  take  private  vows  of  poverty,  chas- 
tity and  obedience,  until  such  time  his  definite  life-work  would  be 
providentially  indicated.158 

As  one  may  judge,  his  application  to  the  profane  studies  was  in 
accordance  with  the  high  motive  he  had  conceived  of  working 
solely  for  God  and  the  good  of  his  fellow-man.  It  is  hardly  neces- 
sary, therefore,  to  add  that  his  success  was  very  marked. 

Before  entering  upon  the  study  of  philosophy  he  desired  to 
fulfill  his  promise  of  entire  service  to  God,  and  accordingly  he 
looked  about  for  some  monastery  to  which  he  could  retire.  But 
as  none  could  be  found  that  would  answer  his  purpose,  he  decided, 
on  the  advice  of  his  brother  John,  to  become,  meanwhile,  a  member 
of  the  Society  of  St.  Charles,  which  was  a  semi-religious  association 
composed  largely  of  the  professors  of  the  college,  and  devoted  to 
missions  and  education  of  youth. 

At  the  completion  of  his  course  at  Mussidan,  Joseph  and  his 
brother  Louis  left  for  Bordeaux,  in  pursuance  of  higher  studies 
preliminary  to  the  doctorate  and  final  ordination.  While  here, 
the  former  once  more  made  trial  of  entering  a  religious  community, 


167He  chose  the  name  of  Joseph  at  the  time  of  his  confirmation,  and  in  honor 
of  the  spouse  of  Mary  he  ever  after  took  that  name  in  preference  to  William. 

1B8Rousseau,  Henri,  Guillaume- Joseph  Chaminade,  Fondateur  des  Marian- 
isles,  9,  Paris,  1913. 


BROTHERS    OF   THE    ROCIETY    OF    MARY  61 

hut  again  he  was  disappointed;  God  had  evidently  reserved  him 
for  another  work  which  would  be  revealed  to  him  in  due  time. 

The  two  young  men  did  not  remain  in  the  city  as  long  as  they 
had  contemplated,  but  went  to  Paris  to  place  themselves  under 
direction  of  the  Sulpician  Fathers.  At  the  end  of  the  course  at 
St.  Sulpice  they  were  ordained,  and,  while  Louis  remained  in  Paris 
for  some  time,  Joseph  returned  to  Mussidan. 

In  1785,  we  find  the  three  brothers  again  united  as  professors 
at  the  above  college.  All  proceeded  smoothly  until  the  outbreak 
of  the  Revolution  in  1789.  However,  at  the  first  indications  of  the 
approaching  storm,  Joseph  had  gone  to  Bordeaux  to  study  up  the 
political  situation,  and  prepare  for  any  eventuality.  The  city, 
would  afford  him  safer  shelter  than  at  the  college. 

With  the  passage  of  the  Civil  Constitution  of  the  Clergy,  by  the 
Assembly  of  July  12,  1790,  he  was  obliged  to  leave  Mussidan  some 
time  afterwards,  and  it  was  then  that  he  took  up  his  secret  lodging 
in  Bordeaux,  with  the  noble  purpose  of  administering  to  the  spiri- 
tual wants  of  the  faithful. 

Like  the  great  majority  of  the  clergy  he  had  courageously 
refused  to  take  the  oath  of  fidelity  to  the  new  Constitution,  and 
was  thus  in  constant  danger  of  arrest,  proscription  and  even  death. 
Yet  he  succeeded  so  well  in  evading  every  detection  by  means  of 
various  shrewd  disguises  and  skillful  management,  that  he  was 
able  to  remain  in  the  city  all  through  the  Reign  of  Terror.159 

Peace  at  last  returned,  and  in  February,  1795,  liberty  of  worship 
was  again  restored.  But  the  period  of  tranquillity  was  to  be  of 
short  duration.  In  October  of  the  very  same  year,  the  laws  against 
non-juring  priests  were  renewed,  and  for  two  years  more  were 
Kvnacted  many  of  the  scenes  of  the  Reign  of  Terror.  Father 
Cham  made  was  once  more  forced  to  hide  himself  from  public 
notice,  and  secretly  resume  his  former  charitable  services  under 
similar  conditions  as  before. 

His  special  care  during  all  the  time  he  labored  in  Bordeaux  was 
in  the  interests  of  youth.  The  pernicious  influence  of  the  ration- 
alistic doctrines  of  Rousseau  and  the  atheistic  philosophy  of  Vol- 
taire  was  glaringly  evident  in  the  frightful  excesses  of  the  revolu- 
tionary mob.  And  hence  Father  Chaminade  wisely  resorted  to 
what  seemed  to  him  the  only  means  of  saving  the  faith  in  France, 
and  that  was  the  proper  instruction  and  religious  formation  of  the 
younger  generation.  This  was  to  be  his  vocation.  He  had  not  as 

"•Simlor,  ,1.  (linlltiumt -Joseph  Chaminade,  Fondateur  de  la  SocitU  de  Marie 
el  de  I'lnstitut  »/,  x  FiUes  de  Marie,  49,  Paris,  1901. 


62  ORIGIN   OF  THE   TEACHING    BROTHERHOODS 

yet  any  thought  of  a  general  apostolate  or  distinctive  religious 
community.  What  he  did  was  to  select  a  few  men  and  young 
women  whom  he  individually  instructed  and  trained  to  be  apostles 
of  the  future.160  It  was  in  germ  the  beginning  of  the  work  which 
ultimately  led  to  the  formation  of  separate  congregations. 

In  1797,  freedom  was  again  granted  to  the  Church,  but  almost 
immediately  there  was  a  political  reaction;  persecution  opened 
anew  for  the  third  time.  So  sudden  was  the  blow  that  the  holy 
priest  was  taken  unawares,  and  having  been  served  with  notice  of 
deportation  he  was  forced  to  leave  the  country. 

He  sought  refuge  at  Saragossa,  in  northern  Spain,  where  many 
faithful  fellow-priests  had  already  preceded  him.  It  was  in  that 
city,  the  seat  of  the  ancient  basilica  of  Our  Lady  of  the  Pillar,  that 
Father  Chaminade  was  inspired  to  become  the  religious  founder, 
and  the  apostle  of  Mary  Immaculate.  At  the  foot  of  the  statue  of 
Our  Blessed  Mother  he  learned  the  precise  nature  of  the  great  work 
he  was  to  accomplish.  Through  Mary  he  had  received  the  Divine 
call,  and,  though  he  had  always  cherished  a  tender  love  for  her,  he 
now  more  than  ever  felt  himself  drawn  to  devote  his  life  to  her 
service.  The  chosen  souls  whom  he  was  to  enlist  in  his  future 
project,  were  like  him  to  chose  the  Blessed  Virgin  as  their  heavenly 
patron,  to  labor  in  spreading  her  devotion,  and  finally,  in  their 
battle  against  the  modern  heresy  of  skepticism  and  religious  indif- 
ference, lead  souls  to  Christ  through  Mary.161 

It  is  not  positively  known  in  what  manner  the  above  revelation 
was  made,  but  that  it  consisted  in  more  than  a  mere  natural 
prescience  or  premonition  of  some  coming  event,  is  certain  from 
the  founder's  own  words  repeatedly  expressed  in  his  later  corre- 
spondence, as  well  as  in  the  conferences  he  held  at  times  with  his 
spiritual  children.  In  his  humility  he  would  refrain  from  ever 
entering  into  details,  but  generally  contented  himself  with  merely 
alluding  to  the  event  by  dwelling  rather  on  the  "  Divine  origin  of 
his  foundations/'  of  the  "  inspiration  received  from  above,"  that 
"Mary  Immaculate  had  conceived  the  idea  of  the  society,"  and 
that  "she  had  laid  its  foundation,"  etc.  Only  on  one  occasion  did 
he  deign  to  give  his  first  disciples  a  faint  idea  of  what  passed  be- 
tween himself  and  Heaven  during  the  hours  spent  at  the  blessed 
shrine.  "Such  as  I  see  you  now  before  me,"  said  he,  "such  I  saw 
you  long  before  the  foundation  of  the  society." 

160Rousseau,  ibid.,  42. 
161Cf.  Simler,  ibid.,  117. 


BROTHERS  OF    THE   SOCIETY    OF    MARY  63 

As  a  result  of  his  prayer  and  reflection  there  finally  became 
fixed  in  his  mind  three  fundamental  ideas,  which  he  resolutely  set 
himself  to  realize;  they  comprised,  in  fact,  the  forecast  and  pro- 
gram of  his  future  work,  namely  these:  (1)  that  his  mission  was  to 
be  placed  under  the  name  and  auspices  of  the  Virgin  Immaculate, 
to  whom  had  been  reserved  the  triumph  over  past  and  present 
heresies ;  (2)  his  apostolate  was  not  to  be  individual  and  transitory, 
but  was  to  exercise  itself  in  associations,  which,  in  turn,  were  to  be 
maintained  in  their  original  spirit,  by  means  of  a  society  of  relig- 
ious, properly  so  called — the  crowning  of  all  his  works;  and  (3) 
this  apostolate  was  to  assume  a  form  which  would  permit  it  to 
reach  most  easily  all  classes  of  society:  a  religious  institute  so 
pliant  as  to  be  able  to  adapt  itself  to  all  conditions  and  circum- 
stances of  time  and  place,  in  so  far  as  the  Church  would  approve.162 

Father  Chaminade  did  not,  however,  depend  only  on  prayer  and 
Divine  inspiration,  but  he  availed  himself  of  his  three  years'  sojourn 
in  exile  (1797-1800)  to  study  carefully  the  life  and  observances  of 
the  various  religious  orders  represented  in  Saragossa  and  envi- 
rons.163 He  learned  a  great  deal  which  he  undoubtedly  incorpo- 
rated to  some  extent  into  his  own  later  institutes. 

Permanent  peace  having  at  last  been  established  in  France  (1800), 
Father  Chaminade  returned  to  Bordeaux  and  immediately  took 
measures  to  carry  out  his  preconceived  plan.  At  the  first  oppor- 
tune moment,  therefore,  he  gathered  about  him  a  chosen  band  of 
young  men  who  formed  the  nucleus  of  a  sodality  of  the  Blessed  Virgin. 
Their  primary  object,  it  is  true,  was  their  own  sanctification  and 
salvation,  but  in  addition  to  this  they  contracted  to  do  all  in  their 
power  by  word  and  example  to  bring  others  to  the  practice  of  their 
religion,  and  to  spread  the  cult  of  Mary;  in  short,  to  be  missionaries 
according  to  the  conception  of  their  spiritual  director. 

There  were  many  other  works  to  which  Father  Chaminade 
devoted  his  attention,164  but  his  chief  concern  was,  of  course,  the 
development  and  progress  of  his  sodality,  since  from  it  was  to  issue 
the  future  Society  of  Mary. 

1MIbid.,  118,  and  cf.  Rousseau,  ibid.,  61. 

1MAmong  these  were  Benedictines,  Franciscans  Dominicans,  Augustinians, 
Hermits  of  St.  Jerome,  Carmelites,  Trinitarians,  Trappists,  and  Fathers  of 
the  Pious  Schools. 

164He  was  active  in  giving  missions  and  retreats,  and  in  various  ways  as- 
sisted his  fellow-priests,  while  at  the  same  time  he  was  administrator  of  a 
diocese  (Bazas).  In  cooperation  with  a  very  pious  and  devoted  lady  of 
Bordeaux,  Mile,  de  Lamourous,  he  founded  "La  MiseYicorde,"  a  home  for 
fallen  women.  He  had  also  been  appointed  as  Penitentiary  to  the  constitu- 
tional pri< 


64  ORIGIN    OF   THE    TEACHING    BROTHERHOODS 

After  some  months  he  also  organized  a  sodality  of  young  ladies 
similar  to  that  of  the  young  men. 

Both  branches  developed  very  rapidly,  and  were  so  productive  of 
good  as  to  win  the  admiration  of  all  Bordeaux.  They  appealed  to 
all  classes  of  society.  In  the  young  men's  sodality,  for  example, 
were  represented  men  of  various  trades  and  professions,  and  even 
a  number  of  priests,  some  of  these  among  the  most  prominent  in 
Bordeaux.165  A  year  after  its  inception  it  counted  one  hundred 
.professed  members,  and  during  the  period  from  1804  to  1809  the 
number  reached  three  hundred.166 

This  extraordinary  success  was  due,  after  God,  to  Father  Cham- 
inade's  own  charm  of  personality,  as  well  as  his  thorough  knowl- 
edge and  understanding  of  human  nature,  especially  that  of  youth 
so  intensely  susceptible  to  every  impression.  He  knew  how  to 
attract,  win  the  affection,  and  by  captivating  the  heart  gain  the 
whole  man.  And  all  for  the  glory  of  God  and  the  salvation  of 
souls. 

The  mission  received  at  Saragossa  was  ever  before  his  mind,  and 
it  was  the  mainspring  of  all  his  activity.  What  he  did  for  the  young 
men's  sodality  was  but  in  preparation  for  the  culminating  event 
which  was  to  take  place  later. 

The  archbishop,  Mgr.  d'Aviau,  entirely  approved  of  his  under- 
taking, and  warmly  supported  him  on  every  occasion,  which 
undoubtedly  must  have  been  a  source  of  great  encouragement  and 
a  further  stimulant  to  the  future  founder. 

However  eager  and  desirous  he  may  have  been  to  see  the  accom- 
plishment of  his  designs,  he  would  not  anticipate  the  will  of  Prov- 
idence. He  felt  certain  that  the  work  in  hand  was  according  to  the 
divine  plan,  and  that  he  would  succeed;  hence  he  could  wait. 

Not  until  about  the  year  1814,  however,  was  there  any  indica- 
tion that  the  time  had  at  last  arrived,  and  after  two  more  years 
(1816)  there  emerged  from  the  sodality  of  young  ladies  the  "  Insti- 
tute of  the  Daughters  of  Mary"  (VInstitut  des  Filles  de  Marie).1*1 

From  the  first  years  of  the  existence  of  the  sodalities  a  great 
number  of  the  most  regular  and  devoted  members  withdrew  to 


165Of  these  may  be  mentioned  R.  P.  Rauzan,  a  famous  orator,  who  later 
founded  the  "Missionaries  of  France,"  and  R.  P.  Boyer,  administrator  of 
the  archdiocese  of  Bordeaux  (cf.  Rousseau,  ibid.,  90  ff.). 

"•Cf.  Simler,  ibid.,  208  ff. 

167Strictly  speaking  the  institute  originated  from  a  branch  sodality  at  Agen, 
a  city  near  Bordeaux. 


BROTHERS   OF  THE   SOCIETY   OF   MARY  65 

enter  religious  life.  Thus  the  young  men  either  left  for  the  semi- 
nary, or  joined  the  Institute  of  the  Christian  Brothers.  Naturally 
Father  Chaminade  became  somewhat  anxious,  and  to  assure  the 
permanence  of  the  work,  he  organized  within  the  sodality  a  select 
body  who  pledged  themselves  to  devote  their  whole  life  to  the  good 
of  the  cause.  Some  took  the  vow  of  obedience,  and  others  bound 
themselves  with  the  additional  vows  of  chastity  and  zeal. 

The  obligations  were  assumed  privately,  and  only  the  members 
of  the  group  knew  of  them.  The  young  men  continued  their 
services  in  the  sodality  as  usual  without  being  accorded  any  special 
distinction  or  privilege.  On  the  contrary  they  were  expected  and 
supposed  to  constitute  the  mainstay  and  life-giving  principle  of  the 
entire  body. 

They  were  in  a  certain  sense  religious  living  in  the  world  and 
pursuing  their  ordinary  occupations.  This  idea  of  Father  Chami- 
nade, if  not  original  with  him,  may  possibly  have  been  borrowed 
from  R.  P.  de  la  Cloriviere  and  his  society  of  religious,  referred  to 
above.168  Father  Chaminade,  undoubtedly,  was  very  much  in- 
clined to  favor  such  a  mode  of  life. 

By  the  above  means  the  sodality  was  wonderfully  strengthened, 
and  the  young  men  in  question  did  indeed  prove  themselves 
worthy  of  their  calling.  Without  any  provocation  whatever  the 
Imperial  Government  in  1809  suddenly  suppressed  the  work;  yet 
in  1814,  when  public  meetings  and  services  were  resumed,  it  was 
found  that  the  sodality  was  as  numerous  and  flourishing  as  ever, 
due,  in  great  part,  to  the  loyalty  and  devotedness  of  these  zealous 
laborers.169  In  1816  they  numbered  fifteen,  known  at  the  time — 
apparently  among  themselves — as  the  "Society  of  Fifteen" 
(Societe  des  Quinze). 

Under  the  direction  of  Father  Chaminade,  and  with  the  assist- 
ance of  his  special  aids,  the  sodality  had  grown  almost  beyond  con- 
trol. There  were  a  number  of  affiliated  sodalities  outside  the  city 
of  Bordeaux,  and  the  thought  was  impressing  itself  more  and  more 
on  the  mind  of  the  reverend  director,  that  if  the  work  was  to  survive 
liim  he  would  need  co-laborers  whose  whole  time  and  energy 
would  be  consecrated  to  this  specific  vocation.  But  it  needed  very 
little  reflection  to  convince  him  that  this  was  possible  only  by 
means  of  a  religious  society  "which  would  never  die."  This  con- 


W8See  note.  p.  44,  above;  also  Rousseau,  ibid.,  162. 
"'Father  Chaminade  designated  them  as  his  "Staff." 


66  ORIGIN    OF   THE   TEACHING    BROTHERHOODS 

elusion  was  in  perfect  harmony  with  another  conviction  of  his, 
namely,  that  only  through  the  religious  orders  was  it  possible  to 
re-establish  Christianity  in  France.170 

It  was  therefore  in  accordance  with  these  considerations  that 
Father  Chaminade,  prompted  by  Divine  Providence,  at  last 
decided  to  plan  a  religious  society  of  a  definite  and  permanent  form, 
comprising  a  body  of  workers  devoted  entirely  to  the  kind  of 
apostolate  he  had  inaugurated  with  his  sodality.  He  first  intended 
to  found  a  congregation  of  religious,  living  in  the  world,  and  having 
all  in  common  like  the  First  Christians;  but  he  very  soon  realized 
that  such  a  form  would  be  altogether  impracticable,  and  hence  he 
determined  that  they  should  live  in  community.  The  time,  also, 
seemed  favorable.  Still  he  would  not  take  the  initiative,  but, 
while  earnest  in  prayer,  he  patiently  awaited  developments. 

Finally,  on  May  1,  1817,  one  of  the  members  of  the  "Fifteen," 
Jean-Baptiste  Lalanne,  who  had  for  some  time  been  seriously  con- 
sidering the  choice  of  a  state  of  life,  came  to  Father  Chaminade 
declaring  his  intention  to  consecrate  his  life  to  the  kind  of  work 
his  spiritual  director  was  engaged  in.  The  young  man — he  was 
twenty-two  at  the  time — himself  tells  about  the  interview:  "When 
I  had  finished,  Father  Chaminade  was  in  tears  of  joy  and  he  ex- 
claimed :  ' It  is  just  what  I  expected  long  ago,  God  be  praised!  He 
has  made  known  His  holy  will;  the  time  has  come  at  last  to  put 
into  execution  a  plan  that  I  have  had  in  mind  for  twenty  years,  a 
plan  which  God  Himself  revealed  to  me!'  " 

M.  Lalanne  immediately  gained  one  of  his  friends,  and  Father 
Chaminade  shortly  after  induced  another  member  to  join  the  first 
two.  With  these  three  secured,  he  regarded  his  foundation  as 
established.  Moreover,  he  believed  that  he  could  now  freely 
propose  the  undertaking  to  all  those  who  were  well-disposed  and  at 
liberty  to  follow  their  vocation.  As  a  result  two  additional  young 
men  from  among  the  "Fifteen"  offered  themselves  at  once.171 

After  a  considerable  delay  the  five  candidates  made  a  decisive 
retreat,  at  the  close  of  which  (October  2, 1817) 172  they  offered  them- 
selves unreservedly  to  their  spiritual  director,  begging  him  to  grant 


170Rousseau,  ibid.,  179  ff. 

inThe  following  are  the  names  of  the  five:  Jean-Baptiste  Lalanne  (22  yrs.), 
Jean-Baptiste  Collineau  (21  yrs.),  Auguste  Brougnon-Perriere  (28  yrs.),  Louis 
Daguzan  (28  yrs.),  and  Dominique  Clouzet  (28  yrs.);  the  first  two  'mentioned 
were  clerical  students  who  became  priests  after  some  time. 

17aThis  day  has  always  been  regarded  in  the  society  as  the  day  of  its  origin. 


BROTHERS    OF   THE    SOCIETY    OF    MARY  67 

them  the  favor  of  making  the  three  vows  of  religion.  Although 
Father  Chaminade  did  not  at  the  time  accede  to  their  wishes,  he 
assured  them  that  he  would  henceforth  depend  upon  them,  and 
that  before  long  he  would  provide  the  means  to  unite  them  in 
community;  the  society  was  at  last  a  reality.173 

Within  a  month  the  little  group  had  increased  to  seven,  and  on 
Thursday,  December  11,  they  pronounced  their  first  vows.  A 
house  was  rented  for  their  use,  but  Father  Chaminade  would  not 
as  yet  permit  them  to  follow  a  regular  community  life.  He  in- 
sisted that  they  pursue  their  ordinary  occupations  in  the  world, 
and  come  together  only  whenever  possible. 

This  manner  of  procedure  was  to  be  maintained  for  a  year,  during 
which  period  the  founder  expected  to  have  ample  opportunity  to 
test  the  members,  and  study  the  form  his  young  institute  was  to 
assume.  He  himself  could  not  regularly  live  in  community  with 
his  religious  brethren,  as  his  other  undertakings  also  demanded  his 
time  and  attention.  He  did,  however,  take  the  title  of  superior 
general  of  the  society,  and  attended  to  its  needs  as  far  as  it  was 
possible  under  the  circumstances. 

The  object  in  founding  the  institute  was  "to  enroll  into  the 
service  of  God  and  the  Church  under  the  patronage  of  Mary,  a 
body  of  religious  soldiers  who  should  combine  a  truly  interior  life 
with  the  exercises  of  an  active  zeal ;  which  should  unite  in  one  body 
men  of  both  the  clerical  and  the  lay  apostolate,  and  devote  all  its 
energies  to  the  work  of  '  increasing  the  number  of  real  Christians/  ' 
The  society  has  thus  a  very  wide  field  of  activity.  In  fact,  it  can 
undertake  any  work  of  zeal,  as  long  as  it  furthers  the  interests  of 
this  general  evangelization,  and  which,  of  course,  is  authorized  by 
the  Holy  See.174 

As  regards  its  organization  it  was  to  be  particularly  remarkable 
for  its  extensive  adaptability.  For  example,  in  external  appear- 
ance and  practices  there  was  nothing  to  attract  attention;  there 

l"Simler,  ibid.,  376. 

174Father  Chaminade  persistently  adhered  to  his  original  idea  of  universality 
of  aim  in  matters  of  zeal,  declaring  that  "the  Society  of  Mary  excludes  no 
species  of  work,  but  adopts  the  means  which  Providence  offers  it  in  order  to 
attain  the  ends  that  it  proposes  to  achieve,  (la  SodeU  de  Marie  n'exclut 
aucun  genre  d'ccumes:  elle  adopte  tous  les  moyens  que  la  divine  Providence  lui 
donne  pour  atteindre  les  fins  qu'elle  se  propose.)11  Simler,  ibid.,  687.  Accord- 
ing to  the  requirements  of  canon  law  the  constitutions  specify  certain  works; 
yet  it  mentions  that  "  if  some  work  of  zeal  not  foreseen,  were  to  present  itself, 
it  could  not  be  undertaken  without  the  authorization  of  the  Sacred  Congrega- 
tion of  Bishops  and  Regulars."  (Constitutions  of  the  Society  of  Mary,  Art. 
285,  Dayton,  1892.) 


68  ORIGIN   OF   THE   TEACHING   BROTHERHOODS 

was  no  special  costume  prescribed;175  the  members  refrained  from 
addressing  one  another  with  the  title  of  Pere,  Frere,  or  Superieur, 
but  simply  used  the  term  Monsieur;176  the  priests  and  lay  members 
were  to  form  one  corporate  whole,  and,  excepting  the  specific  duties 
of  the  sacred  ministry,  both  were  to  be  equally  associated  in  the 
works  of  the  society  ;m  the  lay  members  were  to  be  employed  accord- 
ind  to  their  capacity,  either  in  the  work  of  instruction  or  in  the  care 
of  temporalities;  the  vows  were  those  of  poverty,  chastity  and 
obedience — and  what  seems  unique  in  the  society — with  the  addi- 
tion of  a  fourth,  namely,  that  of  stability,  corresponding  to  the 
vow  of  "zeal  taken  by  the  sodalists,  the  force  of  which  was,  in  each 
case,  "to  renounce  the  right  ever  to  choose  another  religious  rule." 

The  dominant  trait  or  characteristic  impress  of  the  institute  was 
to  be  "filial  piety  toward  Mary."  "This  new  order,"  as  Father 
Chaminade  remarks,  "takes  the  name  of  the  Society  of  Mary  (the 
name  of  Family  would  better  express  its  nature),  because  all  who 
belong  to  it  now  or  who  are  to  belong  to  it  in  future  should :  first, 
consecrate  themselves  to  Mary;  second,  look  upon  Mary  as  their 
mother  and  upon  themselves  as  her  children;  third,  endeavor  to 
form  themselves  within  the  bosom  of  her  maternal  tenderness  into 
a  resemblance  of  Christ;  fourth,  to  take  up  the  labors  of  the  insti- 
tute with  a  supreme  confidence  in  the  protection  of  the  august 
name  of  Mary  and  with  the  sole  desire  of  glorifying  her."  "Per 
Matrem  ad  Filium,"  "through  the  Mother  to  the  Son,"  was  to  be 
their  method  and  their  motto.178 

The  year  of  probation  having  passed,  Father  Chaminade  called 
the  members  of  the  community  together  for  the  exercises  of  a  gen- 
eral retreat.  On  the  closing  date,  September  5,  1818,  six  of  them 


175"  The  costume  of  the  members  of  the  society  differs  little  from  that  of 
seculars.  Nothing  is  sought  for  in  it  but  cleanliness  and  modesty.  (Const. 

Art.  198.) If  in  certain  countries  this  costume  would  prove  seriously 

inconvenient,  the  superior  general  could  permit  the  necessary  modifications. 
(Art.  199.) —  — The  ecclesiastics  are  dressed  like  the  exemplary  priests  of 
the  diocese  in  which  they  reside —  — Modesty  and  simplicity  are  the  only 
exterior  signs  of  their  holy  state."  (Art.  202.) 

176The  founder  was  the  "Good  Father,"  which  appellation  is  still  retained 
by  the  superior  general. 

m«The  Society  of  Mary  is  composed  of  priests  and  lay  members,  forming 
one  and  the  same  congregation,  in  which  all  equally  enjoy  the  title  and  pre- 
rogatives of  members  of  the  society,  and  in  which  all  may  be  equally  called  to 
any  employment,  with  the  exception  of  certain  functions  expressly  reserved 
in  the  constitutions,  some  for  clerical,  others  for  lay  members."  (Art.  306.) 

178The  gold  ring  worn  by  the  members  was  to  be  the  exterior  sign  of  their 
sacred  alliance  with  the  Queen  of  Heaven,  and  by  the  vow  of  stability  they 
pledged  inviolable  fidelity  to  her  service.  (Cf.  Simler,  ibid.,  404.) 


BROTHERS    OF   THE    SOCIETY    OF    MARY  69 

took  perpetual  engagements,  three  made  vows  for  three  years, 
while  four  others  were  to  start  their  novitiate.  It  was  on  this 
occasion  too  that  the  reverend  director  proclaimed  in  the  name 
of  the  Archbishop  of  Bordeaux  the  official  and  acknowledged 
existence  of  the  society.179 

Henceforth  the  members  were  to  live  habitually  in  community, 
and  to  follow  the  rules  which  had  been  prepared  by  Father  Chami- 
nade  and  verbally  approved  by  Mgr.  d'Aviau.  One  of  the  Broth- 
ers, M.  Auguste  Perriere,  was  appointed  superior. 

Much  of  the  work  of  the  previous  year  had  been  in  connection 
with  the  sodality,  but  now  the  members  desired  to  engage  in  some 
other  occupation.  After  a  brief  consideration  of  the  question  they 
all  agreed  that  the  work  of  education  would  afford  them  splendid 
opportunities  for  the  exercise  of  their  apostolic  mission.  Father 
Chaminade,  on  his  part,  encouraged  the  idea.  He  seems  not  origi- 
nally to  have  singled  out  this  particular  employment  for  his  religi- 
ous, but  as  soon  as  it  was  proposed  he  entered  into  the  work  with 
all  the  ardor  of  his  soul.180  It  certainly  was  included  in  his  com- 
prehensive plan  for  the  increase  of  Christians,  and,  from  the  very 
beginning,  it  proved  the  chief  work  of  his  institute,  as  enunciated 
in  the  constitutions:  "The  Society  devotes  itself  to  divers  works 
of  zeal,  principally  to  the  education  of  youth."181  As  we  proceed 
it  will  become  the  more  evident  with  what  energy  and  consummate 
wisdom  the  founder  directed  his  Brothers  in  their  new  undertaking. 

The  latter  determined  to  begin  at  once.  With  the  aid  of  one  of 
their  former  fellow-sodalists,  M.  Estebenet,  who  conducted  a 
private  and  very  flourishing  boarding-school  in  Bordeaux,  they 
secured  the  lease  of  the  building  adjoining  his  own  establishment. 
And,  as  he  himself  intended  to  move  shortly  to  another  locality, 
the  Brothers  were  thus  free  to  open  their  school.  There  was  much 
delay  before  they  obtained  the  requisite  authorization,  and  the 
school-year  was  already  drawing  to  a  close;  nevertheless  they 
opened  classes  with  the  expectation  of  being  better  prepared  for 
the  following  term. 

At  the  re-opening  in  October  it  was  learned  that  M.  Estebenet 
would  not  be  able  to  transfer  his  school  as  promised.  Neither  of 
the  parties  desired  that  the  establishments  exist  side  by  side.  They 


l79Simler.,  387. 
180Cf.  Ibid.,  474. 
lslConst.,  ibid.,  Art.  5. 


70  ORIGIN   OF  THE   TEACHING   BROTHERHOODS 

agreed,  therefore,  that  the  two  schools  combine,  with  Brother 
Auguste  in  full  control,  and  the  other  members  of  the  little  com 
munity  constituting  the  faculty.182 

On  the  advice  of  Father  Chaminade  they  first  limited  themselves 
to  receiving  only  younger  pupils,  the  idea  being  that  these  young 
souls  would  at  the  completion  of  their  course  be  better  prepared 
for  the  work  of  spreading  Christianity.183  It  was  not,  however,  the 
intention  of  the  founder  to  restrict  or  confine  his  Brothers  within 
specified  limits  in  educational  work;  on  the  contrary,  they  could 
engage  in  it  to  any  extent,  provided  there  was  no  interference  on 
the  part  of  the  civil  powers.184  At  that  time  there  did  not  as  yet 
exist  a  law  granting  freedom  in  education.  Therefore,  in  the  above 
instance,  though  the  Brothers  very  much  desired  to  give  a  complete 
secondary  course  (college),  they  were  unable  to  do  so  because  of 
the  various  limitations  imposed  by  the  university  authorities. 

Yet  despite  these  conditions  the  school  gained  a  great  reputation 
for  the  excellent  discipline  that  prevailed,  and  the  thorough  religi- 
ous and  secular  training  it  imparted.  And  as  the  society  became 
more  widely  known,  applications  came  from  different  parts  of  the 
country  asking  for  Brothers  to  open  schools.  Thus,  in  a  few 
years,  establishments  were  founded  at  Agen,  Villeneuve-sur-Lot,  in 
southwestern  and  eastern  France,  but  especially  in  the  provinces  of 
Alsace  and  Franche-Comte*.  They  were  schools,  too,  of  great  diver- 
sity in  character  and  grade,  e.  g.,  schools  for  the  poor,  public,  and 
boarding-schools,  elementary — and  eventually — secondary,  nor- 
mal,185 and  professional. 

This  marvelous  expansion  in  number  of  establishments  presup- 
poses an  extraordinary  internal  growth  and  development  within 
the  Brotherhood  itself.  In  fact,  its  membership  increased  very 
rapidly,  and  the  society  assumed  such  large  proportions  as  to 
guarantee  lasting  stability.  Father  Chaminade  was  ever  its  soul 


182M.  Estebenet  received,  in  compensation  for  his  concession,  a  life  annuity 
of  1,500  fr.  (Rousseau,  ibid.,  252.) 

183Simler,  ibid.,  482. 

184This  freedom  of  action  in  the  field  of  education  is  clearly  stated  in  the  con- 
stitutions: "The  Society  devotes  itself  to  the  education  of  the  youngest 
children,  with  a  special  love  for  the  poorer  class;  it,  however,  does  not  exclude 
the  children  of  a  more  advanced  age,  or  of  a  higher  condition  in  society.  (Art. 

262.) ; — Consequently,  the  principal  works  of  the  Society  of  Mary  relate 

to  instruction  in  every  form  and  grade."  (Art.  263.) 

186Father  Chaminade  was  especially  solicitous  in  establishing  normal  schools 
for  the  preparation  of  State  teachers,  his  underlying  motive,  of  course,  being 
that  the  teachers  thus  thoroughly  trained  would  serve  as  missionaries. 


BROTHERS    OF   THE    SOCIETY    OF   MARY  71 

and  inspiration  in  the  attainment  of  the  two  chief  ends  for  which 
he  had  instituted  it.186 

In  1825,  he  solicited  and  obtained  the  legal  recognition  of  his 
institute  for  the  whole  of  France. 

The  future  looked  bright  and  hopeful,  until  suddenly,  at  the 
outbreak  of  the  Revolution  of  1830,  the  young  society  was  brought 
to  face  the  first  critical  period  in  its  history.  Certain  deplorable 
defections,  together  with  financial  difficulties  and  a  more  or  less 
general  opposition  to  the  management  of  the  society,  for  a  time, 
bitterly  grieved  and  embarrassed  the  founder,  but  happily  did  not 
seriously  affect  the  works  he  had  inaugurated. 

Immediately  following  the  return  to  normal  conditions  (1834), 
he  published  the  first  part  of  his  constitutions;  and,  on  the  comple- 
tion of  the  work  in  1839,  he  submitted  a  copy  to  the  Holy  See  in 
expectation  of  papal  approbation  for  it  and  both  his  institutes. 
His  hopes  were  partly  realized,  as  a  decree  of  commendation  was 
issued  April  12,  1839,  approving  his  two  foundations,  but  only 
provisionally  accepting  the  constitutions.187 

At  the  beginning  of  the  year  1841  he  resigned  from  the  office  of 
superior  general,  and  spent  the  remainder  of  his  life  mostly  in 
retirement.  He  died  January  22,  1850,  in  the  89th  year  of  his  age. 

By  the  Brief  of  approbation  dated  August  11,  1865,  the  society 
was  recognized  and  approved  by  the  Church  as  a  canonical  insti- 
tution, and  on  July  10,  1891,  it  obtained  the  final  and  complete 
approbation  of  its  constitutions. 

The  Society  of  Mary  at  present  has  establishments  in  almost 
every  country  of  the  world,  and  in  1900  had  an  enrollment  of 
2,500  members.188  True  to  the  principles  and  ideals  set  by  the 
founder,  it  still  endeavors,  in  the  multiplicity  of  its  works — espec- 
ially in  the  education  of  youth — to  form  missionaries  who  are  to 
lead  souls  to  Christ  through  the  medium  of  His  Blessed  Mother. 


'••These  two  ends  according  to  the  constitutions  are:  (1)  "To  raise  each 
of  its  members  to  evangelical  perfection;  and  (2)  to  work  at  the  salvation 
of  souls."  (Const.  Art.  2.) 

187The  constitutions  of  the  Brothers  were  adaptations  of  those  of  the  Insti- 
tute of  the  Daughters  of  Mary.  In  both  instances,  they  were  the  fruits  of 
the  founder's  own  originality  of  conception,  experience,  and  study  of  the 
ancient  orders,  particularly  the  Benedictines.  (Cf.  Simler,  ibid.,  388,  685  ff.) 

188The  clerical  body  in  the  society  approximates  six  per  cent  of  the  total 
membership.  In  this  country  there  are  500  Brothers,  divided  into  two  pro- 
vinces with  central-houses  at  Dayton,  O.,  and  Clayton,  Mo.  Though  chiefly 
engaged  in  parochial  school  work,  they  also  conduct  several  flourishing  high 
schools  and  colleges. 


72  ORIGIN   OF   THE   TEACHING   BROTHERHOODS 

BROTHERS  OF  CHRISTIAN  DOCTRINE  OF  NANCY 

(1817) 

This  diocesan  congregation  was  founded  about  the  year  1817,  in 
Lorraine,  France,  by  Dom  Frechard,  former  Benedictine  of 
Senones  Abbey,  then  cure"  of  Colroy,  in  the  diocese  of  Nancy. 
The  object  of  the  foundation  was  to  provide  Christian  teachers  for 
the  neighboring  country  districts. 

For  years  the  institute  was  in  most  precarious  condition,  and  at 
the  time  of  the  Revolution  of  1830  it  was  completely  disorganized. 
It  was  revived,  however,  some  years  afterward.  A  firmer  and 
more  stable  organization  and  form  of  administration  was  then 
introduced,  which,  by  infusing  renewed  life  and  vigor  within  the 
Brotherhood,  assured  its  future  existence. 

Its  members  take  the  vows  of  religion,  both  temporary  and  per- 
petual; the  latter,  though,  are  permissible  only  to  subjects  of  tried 
virtue  and  mature  religious  life.189 

According  to  regulations  the  Brothers  may  be  sent  out  teaching 
either  singly  or  in  groups,  as  necessity  and  circumstances  require. 

In  numbers,  the  congregation  today  counts  two  hundred  sub- 
jects and  twenty  establishments.190 

BROTHERS  OF  HOLY  CROSS     (1820) 

The  above  congregation,  composed  of  Priests  and  lay  Brothers, 
originated  in  France,  and  is  a  combination  of  two  distinct  commu- 
nities, one,  the  Brothers  of  St.  Joseph  of  Ruille  (Loir),  and  the 
other,  an  association  of  Auxiliary  Priests  of  Mans. 

The  founder  of  the  Brothers,  Rev.  James  Francis  Dujarie,  was 
born  at  Sainte-Marie-des-Bois  (dept.  Mayenne)  December  9,  1767. 
Having  inclinations  to  the  priesthood  he  was  sent  to  pursue  his 
classical  studies  successively  at  the  colleges  of  Lassay  (near 
Mayenne),  Saint-Ouen,  Ernee  (Dumfront),  and  lastly  in  1787  he 
entered  Le  Grand  Seminaire  (Angers). 

He  was  interrupted  in  his  preparation  by  the  outbreak  of  the 
French  Revolution,  which  obliged  him  to  leave  the  seminary;  but 
instead  of  fleeing  the  country  he  preferred  to  remain,  and  by  means 
of  various  disguises  he  was  able  to  exercise  his  goodness  and  charity 


189Cf.  H%ot,  ibid.,  Vol.  IV.,  398.      . 
190Laveille  (Lamennais),  ibid.,  Vol.  II.,  461  ff. 


BROTHERS    OF   HOLY    CROSS  73 

in  behalf  of  the  sick  and  needy.  Availing  himself  of  the  first  brief 
period  of  calm  (1794),  he  continued  his  clerical  studies  at  Ruille", 
and  the  following  year  he  was  ordained  in  Paris  at  the  hands  of 
Mgr.  de  Saint-Papoul. 

In  October,  1796,  the  horrors  of  the  Revolution  broke  out  anew, 
with  such  suddenness  too,  that  many  faithful  priests,  who  had  till 
then  escaped  detection,  were  forced  into  exile.  Father  Dujarie* 
somehow  or  other  succeeded  in  evading  discovery,  and  for  three 
years  he  secretly  and  with  heroic  devotedness  attended  to  the 
duties  of  his  priestly  office. 

When  durable  peace  finally  returned,  he  was  appointed  (1803) 
cure*  of  Ruille",  in  which  capacity  he  immediately  entered  upon  the 
work  of  remedying  the  evil  effects  and  influences  of  the  Revolu- 
tion. With  all  the  energy  of  his  soul  he  labored  to  revive  the 
faith  among  his  people,  and  to  bring  them  back  to  God  and  religion. 
But  it  was  especially  the  poor  children  that  appealed  to  him,  for 
they  were  truly  the  most  neglected  and  helpless. 

As  a  first  result  of  his  endeavors  there  eventually  developed  a 
society  of  pious  women  who  pledged  themselves  to  devote  ;their 
lives  to  the  education  of  poor  girls.191 

One  portion  of  his  flock  was  thus  provided  for;  but  another,  that 
of  the  boys  was  next  to  solicit  his  attention.  He  could  not  secure 
Christian  Brothers  for  reasons  already  stated;192  and  the  other 
teaching  Brotherhoods  being  generally  limited  to  a  very  narrow 
radius — either  a  diocese,  or  at  most  a  province — could  not  supply 
the  necessary  assistance.  And  even  if  these  congregations  had 
been  willing  to  oblige,  they  would  not  have  been  able  to  do  so,  as 
nearly  all  of  them  were  of  recent  date,  and  hence  were  not  suffi- 
ciently developed  to  meet  the  great  demand  made  on  them. 

The  only  alternative,  therefore,  left  to  Father  Dujarie1  was  to 
take  the  matter  in  hand  himself.  His  idea  was  to  form,  if  possible, 
an  association  of  teaching  Brothers  whose  rules  would  allow  them 
to  teach  singly  or  in  groups,  according  as  the  parishes  needed  them. 

While  deliberating  upon  the  question,  he  sought  the  advice  of 
others,  particularly  the  Bishop  of  Mans,  Mgr.  Claude  Madeleine 
de  la  Myre,  who  in  time  (1820)  authorized  Father  Dujarie"  to  pro- 
ceed to  the  execution  of  his  design,  i.  e.,  to  found  a  community  of 
Brothers  destined  for  the  parishes  of  the  diocese. 


191Trahey,  J.  J.,  C.  S.  C.,  The  Brothers  of  Holy  Cross,  15,  Notre  Dame. 
l«See  above,  p.  33. 


74  ORIGIN   OF  THE   TEACHING    BROTHERHOODS 

The  founder  at  once  took  measures  to  begin  the  work.  Of  the 
five  young  men  who  presented  themselves  in  the  course  of  the  year 
(1820),  two  Andre^Pierre  Mattais  (Brother  Andre),  and  fitienne 
Gauffre  (Brother  fitienne)  remained  faithful.  They  lodged  with 
Father  Dujari6,  shared  his  meals,  and  spent  the  day  in  study, 
manual  labor  and  in  the  performance  of  certain  religious  exercises. 

Toward  the  end  of  the  year  the  little  community  had  increased 
to  four  members.  At  this  time,  too,  Brother  Andre*  and  Brother 
Utienne  were  sent  to  Mans,  to  prepare  directly  for  the  religious 
life  and  undertake  special  studies  at  Le  Grand  Seminaire. 

The  year  after  they  returned  to  Ruille,  when  Brother  Andre  was 
appointed  assistant  novice-master,  and  Brother  fitienne  was  com- 
missioned to  open  the  first  school  at  Saint-Denis  d'Orques  (Novem- 
ber 9,  1821).  A  number  of  schools  followed,  and  by  the  end  of 
1822  the  society  had  control  of  eight  establishments. 

At  the  annual  retreat  of  this  same  year  the  Brothers  took  religi- 
ous engagements,  consisting  of  the  three  essential  vows  of  poverty, 
chastity  and  obedience.  They  were  temporary,  either  for  one, 
two  or  three  years;  no  perpetual  vows  it  seems  were  taken  for  the 
time  being.193 

With  the  intention  of  completing  his  work  Father  Dujarie  took 
steps  to  obtain  for  his  community  a  legal  standing.  He  apparently 
had  no  difficulty  as  his  wishes  were  very  shortly  complied  with.  A 
decree  authorizing  the  institute  under  the  name  of  "Brothers  of 
St.  Joseph "  (Freres  de  St.  Joseph — Sarthe)  was  issued  June  23, 
1823.194 

Despite  the  fact  that  the  congregation  rapidly  developed  during 
the  next  few  years,  it  seems  to  have  lacked  the  true  stamina  requi- 
site for  permanent  stability.  Beginning  about  1828  the  commu- 
nity started  slowly  to  disintegrate;  it  was  saved  from  absolute  ruin 
only  by  the  loyal  devotedness  of  a  small  band  of  faithful  members 
who  solemnly  agreed  (1831)  to  sustain  the  Brotherhood  come  what 
may.195 

In  1835,  the  holy  founder,  feeling  that  his  strength  would  no 
longer  permit  him  to  continue  to  govern  the  society,  resigned  from 
the  office  of  superior.  He  was  succeeded  by  Father  Basil  Anthony 
Moreau,  a  former  friend  of  the  Brothers,  who  willingly  and  gladly 
accepted  the  charge. 

193Trahey,  ibid.,  26. 
1MIbid.,  27. 
1»*Cf.  ibid.,  29. 


BROTHERS    OF    HOLY    CROSS  75 

This  worthy  priest  had  at  an  early  date  undertaken  the  work  of 
preaching  retreats,  and  with  such  success  that  the  Bishop  of  Mans 
urged  him  to  found  an  association  of  ecclesiastics  who  would  aid 
him  in  this  particular  calling.  Accordingly,  with  six  priests 
Father  Moreau  laid  the  foundation  of  his  society,  the  "Auxiliary 
Priests  of  Mans,'*  the  same  year  (1835)  in  which  he  took  over  the 
direction  of  the  Brothers  of  St.  Joseph.196 

For  a  time  both  societies  continued  their  respective  work:  the 
Brothers  taught  their  schools,  while  the  Fathers  engaged  in  giving 
retreats.  But  Father  Moreau  thought  of  uniting  the  two  bodies; 
to  his  mind  they  could  thus  accomplish  much  more  good.  The 
union  was  also  shortly  effected,  and  the  institute  thus  formed  was 
called  the  "  Association  of  Holy  Cross."197 

As  the  first  fruit  of  the  coalition  Father  Moreau  founded  (1836) 
the  College  of  Holy  Cross  at  Mans,  in  which  both  the  Fathers  and 
Brothers  were  employed.  No  better  evidence  could  have  been 
produced  of  the  unity  and  harmony  that  existed  among  the  mem- 
ers.  The  adjustment  of  both  divisions  of  the  congregation  in  this 
particular  instance  also  served  as  a  model  for  the  future.198 

During  this  year,  too,  the  ceremony  of  perpetual  profession  was 
introduced  among  the  Brothers.  In  regard  to  the  Fathers  no 
definite  step  was  taken  in  this  respect  until  1840,  when  they  also 
were  permitted  to  take  perpetual  vows.199 

These  sacred  engagements  were  certainly  clear  indications  of  the 
strength  and  vitality  that  pervaded  the  entire  body,  and  which  at 
the  same  time  gave  assurance  of  future  permanency. 

In  1855  and  1856,  respectively,  the  congregation  was  favored  by 
the  Holy  See  with  laudatory  briefs,  and  in  1857,  Rome  definitely 
and  fully  approved  its  rules  and  constitutions. 

Today,  the  Brotherhood  in  this  country  numbers  one  hundred 
and  fifty  Fathers  and  about  two  hundred  Brothers.  Its  educa- 
tional activities  are  confined  chiefly  to  the  college  and  university.200 

1  "Though  Father  Dujarte  had  severed  his  connections  with  both  the  Brothers 
and  Sisters,  he  apparently  continued  to  reside  with  his  spiritual  children,  and 
also  died  among  them.  (Cf.  Trahey,  ibid.,  35.) 

ltTThe  designation  "Holy  Cross,"  which  the  members  of  the  congregation 
adopted  as  their  distinctive  name,  was  derived  from  Holy  Cross  commune, 
a  suburb  of  the  city  of  Mans.  (Ibid.,  37.)  At  the  time  of  the  fusion,  the 
Brothers  of  St.  Joseph  numbered  about  sixty. 

1MAt  the  present  time,  for  example,  a  very  similar  arrangement  exists: 
The  Fathers  direct  the  educational  institutions  assisted  by  the  Brothers.  (Cf . 
ibid.,  68,  117.) 

"The  congregation  in  1840  counted  eighty  members,  thirty-nine  establish- 
ments, and  forty-five  novices. 

200Cf.  Trahey,  ibid.,  68, 117;  and  The  Catholic  Church  in  the  U.  S.,  ibid.,  162. 


76  ORIGIN   OF   THE   TEACHING   BROTHERHOODS 

BROTHERS   OF  THE  CROSS  OF  JESUS     (1820) 

These  Brothers  were  founded  in  1820  at  Lyons,  France,  by  Rev. 
C.  M.  Bochard,  vicar-general  of  the  diocese. 

Until  1873,  the  principal  houses  were  directed  by  priests,  who 
were  members  of  the  community.  As  the  Fathers  were  withdrawn 
at  the  time  to  attend  to  parishes,  the  congregation  has  since  been 
composed  exclusively  of  Brothers. 

A  province  of  this  commmunity  exists  in  Canada,  where  at 
present  the  Brothers  conduct  a  number  of  colleges.201 

BROTHERS  OF  THE  SACRED  HEART     (1821) 

Pere  Andre*  Coindre,  the  founder  of  this  community,  was  a 
prominent  member  of  the  Society  of  Missionaries  of  France.  He 
was  a  native  of  the  city  of  Lyons,  and  was  born  February  26,  1787. 

At  the  time  of  his  ordination  to  the  priesthood  (June  14,  1812), 
he  was  placed  at  Bourg  as  chief  curate  of  the  parish.  The  people 
in  general  had  not  as  yet  been  brought  back  to  the  regular  practice 
of  their  religion.  But  the  fervor  and  zeal  of  the  new  abbe"  soon 
made  itself  felt.  His  forceful  eloquence  especially,  inspired  as  it 
was  solely  by  love  of  God  and  the  practice  of  virtue,  proved  a  very 
powerful  means  in  this  general  apostolate. 

It  is  natural,  therefore,  that  mission-work  must  have  appealed 
to  him;  and  when  in  1816  Cardinal  Fesch,  Archbishop  of  Lyons, 
invited  his  cooperation  in  a  society  of  missionaries  which  he  had 
reestablished  in  the  diocese,  the  young  priest  at  once  most  gladly 
accepted.202  From  this  time  forward  he  consecrated  his  life  to  the 
missions,  preaching  not  only  within  his  own  diocese  (Lyons),  but 
also  in  those  of  Puy  and  Blois. 

While  in  the  course  of  his  labors  at  Lyons,  his  attention  was 
drawn  to  the  great  number  of  homeless  and  neglected  boys  whom 
he  met  on  the  streets.  Their  spiritual  condition  particularly 
aroused  his  deepest  feelings  of  pity  and  commiseration.  And  to 
save  them  he  founded  his  first  "  Providence,"  an  asylum  in  which 
these  poor  waifs,  while  being  initiated  into  useful  labor,  received 
at  the  same  time  a  good  education.  By  the  year  1820  their  num- 
ber had  increased  to  such  an  extent  that  a  larger  building  was  fitted 


301Catholic  Encyclopedia,  Vol.  IV.,  539. 

™Annuaire  de  I'lnstitut  des  Frbres   du  Sacre-C&ur,  No.  4,   18,  Renteria 
(Espagne),  1910. 


BROTHERS    OF    THE    SACRED    HEART  77 

out  for  the  purpose,  the  whole  establishment  becoming  known  as 
Le  Pieux-Secours. 

Since  the  very  beginning  of  the  project  Pere  Coindre  had  been 
employing  lay  teachers  in  the  work,  but  all  things  considered 
these  did  not  meet  his  expectations.  He  thought  that  if  his  under- 
taking was  to  last,  he  must  build  it  on  a  firm  and  solid  basis;  and 
this,  he  finally  concluded,  could  only  be  done  by  a  body  of  religious 
teachers  devoted  exclusively  to  education. 

Acting  on  this  conviction  he  one  day  drew  aside  two  of  his  most 
exemplary  co-workers,  and  exposed  to  them  his  intention  of  found- 
ing a  congregation  for  the  purpose  in  view,  asking  whether  they 
would  offer  themselves  as  members.  One  of  them  replied  that  he 
had  not  the  inclination  for  the  kind  of  life  proposed.  The  other, 
Guillaume  Arnaud,  immediately  responded  to  the  wishes  of  the 
founder  and  answered:  "I  know  the  world.  Vanity,  pleasures, 
riches,  are  the  chains  of  slavery.  My  happiness  would  be  to  con- 
secrate myself  without  reserve  to  the  service  of  God.203"  He  was 
the  first  Brother  of  the  Sacred  Heart,  known  afterward  as  Brother 
Xavier. 

Some  months  afterward  he  was  joined  by  two  other  youths, 
Claude  Melinond  and  Frangois  Porcher,  later  respectively  known  as 
Brother  Francois  and  Brother  Paul.  And  this  number  was  shortly 
increased  by  the  addition  of  several  more.  While  on  a  mission 
to  Saint-fitienne  the  founder  made  the  acquaintance  of  a  group 
of  seven  young  men,  who  had  the  laudable  practice  of  mutually 
sharing  the  profits  of  their  labor.  On  the  invitation  of  Pe*re  Coin- 
dre they  all  followed  him. 

With  these  ten  disciples  the  founder  was  to  begin  his  work.  The 
first  definite  action  taken  to  this  end  was  the  retreat  of  September 
24,  1821,  on  the  closing  day  of  which  (30th)  he  conducted  his 
spiritual  children  to  the  venerated  sanctuary  of  Our  Lady  of 
Fourviere,  and  consecrated  them  to  the  Blessed  Mother.  The 
Institute  of  the  Brothers  of  the  Sacred  Heart  was  a  reality.204 

After  the  retreat  the  founder  apportioned  an  employment  to  each 
of  the  Brothers,  for  example,  to  one  he  assigned  the  direction  and 
management  of  Le  Pieux-Secours,  to  another,  the  adjoining  work- 
shop; and  in  time,  others  were  sent  to  open  schools  in  different 
parishes. 


ao3Annuaire,  No.  5,  11. 

2<"Cf.  Annuaire,  No.  4,  ibid.,  25. 


78          ORIGIN  OF  THE  TEACHING  BROTHERHOODS 

In  1824,  the  members  took  religious  vows,  and  at  this  time,  too, 
Pe*re  Coindre  organized  the  government  of  the  institute.  The 
rules  were  based  upon  the  rule  of  St.  Augustine,  and  the  constitu- 
tions were  modeled  after  those  of  St.  Ignatius.  Besides,  the 
Brothers  elected  from  among  their  number  a  director  general, 
with  two  assistants,  and  a  procurator.  The  founder  was  to  remain 
superior  general  until  his  death,  after  which  his  brother  Vincent, 
who  was  chaplain  of  Le  Pieux-Secours,  was  to  assume  the  office; 
then  only  was  the  government  of  the  society  to  pass  over  into  the 
hands  of  the  Brothers  themselves.205 

Circumstances,  however,  somewhat  altered  this  arrangement. 
P£re  Coindre  was  appointed  in  1825  as  president  of  the  diocesan 
seminary  of  Blois,  and  being  thus  obliged  to  resign  from  his 
office  of  superior,  his  brother,  of  course,  immediately  succeeded 
him. 

The  founder,  nevertheless,  kept  in  touch  with  the  Brothers  by 
regular  correspondence,  and  even  found  time  to  work  at  their 
rules.  But  he  did  not  complete  the  task,  for  he  died  the  following 
year  (1826). 

Despite  the  best  intentions  the  new  superior  unfortunately  erred 
in  matters  of  administration,  and  thereby  greatly  hindered  the 
development  and  progress  of  the  congregation.  At  one  time  when 
a  financial  crisis  was  threatened  it  was  only  the  timely  action  of 
one  of  the  Brothers  that  saved  the  situation.206 

Finally,  in  1841  P&re  Vincent,  realizing  that  the  Brothers  could 
henceforth  direct  their  own  affairs,  resigned  from  the  superiorship, 
and  one  of  the  Brothers  (Frere  Polycarpe)  was  elected  as  his 
successor.207 

The  congregation  was  approved  by  the  Church  in  1897.208 

Its  development  has  been  very  rapid  ever  since  the  Brothers 
assumed  self-government.  An  idea  of  it  may  be  had  from  the 
fact  that  in  1901  France  alone  numbered  1,100  Brothers,  with  150 
schools  under  their  direction,  spread  throughout  twenty  dioceses.20' 


206Ibid.,  27. 

206Cf .  Annuaire,  No.  5,  22  ff . 

207Annuaire,  No.  7,  27  ff. 

208The  institute  had  been  legally  authorized  (March  10,  1825)  under  the 
name  of  Freres  de  VInstruction  Chritienne  au  Paradis-pres-Le-Puy — Hte- 
Loire. 

ao*The  provinces  of  the  United  States  and  Canada  in  1907  reckoned  together 
a  total  of  460  Brothers,  with  forty-eight  establishments.  (Catholic  Ency- 
clopedia, Vol.  XIII,  305.) 


BROTHERS    OF    CHRISTIAN    DOCTRINE    OF    STRASBURG  79 

BROTHERS  OF  CHRISTIAN  DOCTRINE  OF  STRASBURG 

(1821) 

The  founder  of  this  congregation,  Tabbe"  Ignace  Mertian,  desir- 
ous of  procuring  for  the  youth  of  his  diocese  the  blessings  of  a 
Christian  education,  laid  the  foundation  of  his  Brotherhood  in 
1821,  by  the  establishment  of  a  novitiate  at  Ribeauville",  province 
of  Alsace,  France. 

The  undertaking  was  so  fraught  with  difficulties,  especially  in 
regard  to  the  formation  of  subjects,  that  the  founder  was  finally 
constrained  to  dissolve  the  community  in  1826.210  It  was  reestab- 
lished, however,  in  1843  through  the  instrumentality  of  the  two 
brothers  of  the  original  founder,  M.  Louis  and  Tabbe"  Eugene,  whose 
great  fortune  was  utilized  in  furtherance  of  the  work.  L'abbe" 
Eugene,  truly  the  second  founder  of  the  congregation,  became  its 
first  superior  general,  and  it  thenceforth  prospered  although  very 
slowly. 

The  Brothers  besides  being  employed  in  teaching  are  often 
assigned  to  the  duties  of  sacristan  and  organist.  All  take  the 
temporary  or  perpetual  vows  of  religion,  to  which  they  add  a 
fourth,  that  of  devoting  themselves  to  the  care  of  poor  children. 

At  the  present  time  the  community  numbers  150  Brothers,  and 
30  novices  and  postulants.211 

BROTHERS  OF  ST.   JOSEPH  OF  AMIENS     (1824) 

The  origin  of  this  institute  is  generally  ascribed  to  the  Rt.  Rev. 
Bishop  of  Amiens  (France),  Mgr.  de  Chabons,  but  its  actual 
accomplishment  was  due  to  M.  Lardeur,  a  layman.  The  bishop 
had  had  the  desire  for  some  years  to  found  a  diocesan  congrega- 
tion to  take  charge  of  his  schools;  yet  he  saw  no  opportunity  of 
doing  so  until  he  secured  the  assistance  of  the  pious  layman 
referred  to. 

A  community  was  provisionally  established  at  Longueau,  near 
Amiens,  February  2,  1824,  and  the  following  year,  on  March  19, 
the  first  six  postulants  took  the  religious  habit.  Later,  M.  Lar- 
deur purchased  the  old  abbey  of  St.  Fuscien  nearby,  which  place 
very  shortly  became  the  permanent  home  and  central-house  of  the 
congregation.  Its  members,  known  as  the  Brothers  of  St.  Joseph 

J10Cf.  Simler  (Brothers  of  the  Society  of  Mary),  ibid.,  497,  566  ff. 
^Helyot,  ibid.,  Vol.  IV,  395;  Heimbucher,  ibid.,  362. 


80          ORIGIN  OF  THE  TEACHING  BROTHERHOODS 

(or  Josephites  of  St.  Fuscieri),  directed  a  number  of  schools  of  the 
diocese  until  the  Revolution  of  1830  forced  the  Brothers  to  suspend 
all  work,  thereby  almost  ruining  the  entire  community.  It  revived, 
however,  as  soon  as  more  peaceful  days  returned,  and  continued  its 
former  labors,  confining  itself  principally  to  the  diocese  of  Amiens. 

The  members  of  the  congregation  are  divided  into  three  distinct 
groups,  viz.,  teachers,  priests,  and  coadjutor  Brothers.  They  all 
make  profession  to  observe  the  evangelical  counsels,  together  with 
the  vow  to  extend  the  cult  of  the  Most  Holy  Hearts  of  Jesus  and 
Mary,  above  all  in  devoting  themselves  to  the  education  of  youth. 

The  congregation  secured  its  legal  existence  by  royal  ordinance 
of  December  3,  1823,  authorizing  its  formation.212 

BROTHERS  OF  THE  HOLY  FAMILY  (1824) 

This  congregation,  composed  of  teachers  and  lay  Brothers,  was 
founded  in  1824,  by  Gabriel  Taborin,  in  the  diocese  of  Belley, 
France.  A  first  attempt  at  foundation  was  made  in  the  diocese  of 
Saint-Claude  (Jura),  where  Taborin  lived  at  the  time.  The  young 
man  had  had  inclinations  toward  the  religious  life,  but  could  not 
decide  which  order  he  should  enter.  He  then  thought  that  per- 
haps he  himself  could  found  a  congregation  which  would  answer 
his  purpose.  At  first  he  rejected  the  idea,  believing  himself  alto- 
gether unworthy  of  the  honor  and  incapable  of  undertaking  such  a 
task.  Yet  he  could  not  banish  the  thought  from  his  mind.  In  his 
doubt  and  indecision  he  consulted  the  bishop,  who  immediately 
approved  of  the  project  in  contemplation,  and  urged  him  to  begin 
the  work. 

In  compliance  with  the  desire  of  the  prelate,  Taborin  gathered 
about  him  five  young  men  with  whom  he  formed  the  first  commu- 
nity. According  to  regulations  the  members  employed  themselves 
in  teaching  and  in  the  service  of  the  cathedral  as  chanters  and 
sacristans.  The  kind  of  life  and  work,  however,  soon  grew  irk- 
some and  monotonous  to  the  associates  of  Brother  Gabriel,  and 
they  all  left  him.  The  latter  shortly  afterward  (1827)  returned 
to  his  native  diocese  of  Belley,  where  he  once  more  took  up  the 
work,  but  this  time  with  better  success.  His  first  permanent 
novitiate  was  founded  at  Belmont  (1829),  and  later  (1840),  in 
concert  with  the  bishop,  Mgr.  Devie,  he  transferred  it  to  the  city  of 
Belley. 

212H61yot,  ibid.,  Vol.  IV,  1304. 


BROTHERS   OF   ST.    VIATOR  81 

The  following  year  (1841)  Gregory  XVI  approved  the  congrega- 
tion by  decree  of  August  18,  and  by  Brief  the  27th  of  the  same 
month. 

The  community  is  directed  by  a  Brother  general  who  is  elected 
for  life.  With  the  three  customary  vows  of  religion  the  Brothers 
take  also  the  vow  of  stability,  the  four  being  at  first  temporary  for 
five  years,  and  perpetual  thereafter.  Priests  are  admitted  as 
members  of  the  congregation  but  only  so  many  as  are  absolutely 
needed  for  fulfilling  the  functions  of  chaplains  in  the  novitiates, 
including  even  the  offices  of  provincial,  master  of  novices  and 
prior,  all  subject,  however,  to  the  Brother  general. 

The  Brotherhood  was  legalized  by  the  French  Government  under 
name  of  "  Frtres  de  la  Ste-FamiUe,"  a  Belley  (Am)  January  10, 
1874.213 

BROTHERS  OF  ST.  VIATOR    (1835) 

Among  the  religious  congregations  founded  in  the  diocese  of 
Lyons,  France,  that  of  the  Viatorians,  or  Clerics  of  St.  Viator, 
occupies  an  important  place.  The  community,  composed  of 
clerical  and  lay  members,  was  founded  in  1835  by  the  Very  Rev. 
Louis  Joseph  Querbes,  parish  priest  of  the  little  village  of  Vourles, 
southwest  of  the  city  of  Lyons.  He  was  born  in  the  above  me- 
tropolis August  25,  1793,  at  a  time  when  the  country  was  in  a  state 
of  political  turmoil,  and  many  of  the  faithful  were  deprived  of  the 
consolations  of  religion. 

Happily,  however,  his  education  was  not  interfered  with.  His 
parents  and  teachers  cooperated  in  their  endeavors  to  give  him  a 
thorough  religious  training,  with  the  result  that  he  grew  up  to  be 
a  very  pious  young  man.  One  evidence  of  this  is  the  fact  that 
shortly  before  his  First  Communion  he  had  made  the  vow  of  per- 
petual chastity.214 

As  the  priesthood,  therefore,  naturally  appealed  to  him,  he 
availed  himself  of  the  first  opportunity  to  enter  upon  his  prepara- 
tion for  this  particular  state  of  life.  In  due  time  he  received  the 
various  minor  orders,  and  on  December  17,  1816,  he  was  ordained. 

After  being  employed  a  short  time  in  different  capacities,  he  was 
finally  (October  31,  1822)  appointed  as  pastor  of  Vourles,  a  village 
of  about  1,200  souls.  The  great  majority  of  its  people  had  grown 


.,  482;  cf.  Catholic  Encyclopedia,  Vol.  VII,  408. 
!"Rivard,  E.  L.,  C.  S.  V.,  St.  Viator  and  the  Viatorians,  141,  Chicago,  191 


82  ORIGIN   OF  THE   TEACHING   BROTHERHOODS 

callous  to  all  religious  influence,  and  a  general  renovation  of  the 
whole  parish  was  absolutely  necessary.  Abbe*  Querbes  was  not 
daunted  by  the  almost  hopeless  task  before  him;  on  the  contrary, 
with  fullest  confidence  in  the  Divine  assistance,  he  opened  a  sys- 
tematic attack  on  every  existing  evil.  Neither  were  his  efforts 
fruitless.  Within  a  year  his  work  of  reform  had  made  itself  felt 
in  every  part  of  the  parish,  and  conditions  were  very  much 
improved. 

From  the  very  beginning  Father  Querbes  became  aware  of  the 
deplorable  state  of  the  schools.  He  had  introduced  the  Sisters  of 
St.  Charles  to  attend  to  the  girls,  but  as  regards  the  boys,  the  matter 
was  more  difficult.  He  could  not  obtain  Brothers,  so  he  contented 
himself  for  the  time  being  with  accepting  the  services  of  a  lay 
teacher. 

The  situation  in  other  isolated  parishes  was  not  more  favorable 
to  the  religious  education  of  youth.  A  question  that  the  good  cure 
often  put  to  himself  was  how  to  devise  some  means  to  meet  this 
all  important  need.  Lay  teachers  there  were  in  some  of  the  out- 
lying districts,  but  many  of  them  either  lacked  the  necessary 
training,  or  were  indifferent  in  matters  of  religion,  to  say  the  least; 
often  they  directly  opposed  the  interests  of  the  Church.215 

With  these  facts  vividly  brought  to  mind,  Father  Querbes 
ardently  desired  an  increase  of  Christian  teachers.  He  thought  of 
establishing  a  kind  of  normal  school,  or  teachers'  seminary,  in 
which  secular  teachers  could  be  properly  instructed  and  prepared 
to  assist  the  pastors  of  parishes  in  their  work  of  educating  the 
children. 

To  this  effect,  he  communicated  with  the  ecclesiastical  author- 
ities of  Lyons,  explicitly  declaring  at  the  same  time  that  his  inten- 
tion was  not  to  form  a  religious  congregation,  properly  so  called; 
his  society,  as  he  wrote  June  10,  1829,  was  "to  be  in  a  Christian 
sense  a  confraternity  and  in  a  legal  sense  a  charitable  corporation, 
nothing  more."216 

Though  he  received  at  the  start  very  little  encouragement  he 
nevertheless  determined  to  carry  out  his  design.  He  bought  a 
building  near  the  presbytery,  and  here  he  gathered  the  young  men 
who  volunteered  to  engage  in  this  educational  movement. 


216Ibid.,  155. 
2WIbid.,  157. 


BROTHERS    OF   ST.    VIATOR  83 

The  number  of  subjects  gradually  increasing,  Father  Querbes 
deemed  it  advisable  to  solicit  for  his  association  both  the  ecclesias- 
tical and  civil  authorization.  He  secured  at  first  its  legal  existence, 
January  10,  1830,  under  the  name  of  "Charitable  Society  of  the 
Schools  of  St.  Viator/'217  and  shortly  afterward  the  institute  re- 
ceived the  diocesan  approval. 

In  course  of  time  the  reverend  director  realized  that  he  would  be 
obliged  to  deviate  from  his  original  purpose,  if  his  society  was  to 
survive.  To  ensure  its  stability,  therefore,  he  finally  decided  to 
erect  it  into  a  religious  community.  The  necessary  preparations 
were  made,  and  on  October  21,  1835,  all  the  members  took  the 
vows  of  religion. 

In  1838,  Pope  Gregory  XVI  favored  the  community  by  defi- 
nitely approving  its  statutes  (constitutions). 

As  regards  the  establishment  of  schools  the  society  filled  the 
demands  in  proportion  as  it  had  Brothers  to  dispose  of. 

Its  membership  which  in  1840  reached  over  one  hundred,  was 
later  sensibly  augmented  by  the  addition  of  two  Brotherhoods, 
viz.,  the  Brothers  of  St.  Odilon,  about  the  year  1841,  and  that  of 
the  Brothers  of  St.  John,  in  1854,  both  diocesan  foundations.  An 
impetus  was  thereby  imparted  to  the  whole  society,  which  was 
particularly  noticeable  in  its  rapid  expansion  throughout  the 
center  and  south  of  France.  Such  was  its  growth  that  at  the  time 
of  the  founder's  death  (September  1,  1859),  the  community 
counted  three  provinces  in  Europe  and  one  in  America  (Canada). 

At  present,  the  number  of  Fathers  and  Brothers  in  Europe  is 
over  three  hundred,  in  Canada  four  hundred;  and  in  the  United 
States  (Chicago  province),  according  to  the  personnel  of  1915, 
there  are  thirty-four  Fathers,  twenty-five  Brothers,  six  novices  and 
twenty  junior  students.218 


M7Since  the  association  had  as  double  end  "the  Christian  education  of  youth 
and  the  service  of  the  altar,"  Father  Querbes  appropriately  selected  St.  Viator 
(A.  D.  360),  the  young  catechetical  lector  at  Lyons,  as  patron  of  his  new 
society.  (Rivard,  ibid.,  161.)  The  legal  sanction  above  noted  was  limited 
to  the  department  of  the  Rhone;  later,  in  1851,  the  sanction  was  extended  to 
the  whole  of  France  and  the  colonies.  (Ibid.,  178.) 

218The  Catholic  Church  in  the  United  States,  ibid.,  162.  It  may  be  added 
that  the  Fathers  and  the  Brothers  of  the  community  are  employed  in  teaching, 
and  that,  as  religious,  they  are  in  every  respect  on  an  equality:  both  follow 
the  same  rule  and  live  the  same  common  life.  (Ibid.,  224.) 


84          ORIGIN  OF  THE  TEACHING  BROTHERHOODS 

BROTHERS  OF  MERCY     (1842) 

This  community  of  teaching  Brothers  was  founded  in  1842,  at 
Mountbourg,  France,  by  M.  Delamare,  one  of  the  vicar-generals 
of  the  diocese  of  Coutance.  Its  educational  activities  are  confined 
to  the  province  of  Normandy,  the  principal  establishments  being 
located  in  the  department  of  Manche.  The  congregation  num- 
bers about  120  Brothers  with  21  schools. 

It  was  legally  authorized  September  4,  1856,  under  the  designa- 
tion of  Freres  des  Ecoles  chretiennes  de  la  Misericorde,  a  Monte- 
bourg  (Manche).219 

BROTHERS  OF  THE  HOLY  UNION     (1858) 

A  congregation  of  this  name  was  founded  in  France  about  the 
year  1858,  and  devotes  itself  to  education.  Apparently  the 
Brotherhood  has  not  developed  to  any  great  extent.  There  exists 
but  one  community  of  12  Brothers,  situated  at  Douai  (Nord).220 

219Cf.  Laveille  (Lamennais),  ibid.,  Vol.  II,  146;  Marchand,  Alfred,  Moines 
et  Nonnes,  Vol.  II,  238.  Paris,  1880. 
^Marchand,  ibid.,  258. 


PART  HI 

THE  COMMUNITIES  OF  IRELAND,  BELGIUM  AND 
HOLLAND. 


CHRISTIAN  BROTHERS  OF  IRELAND     (1802) 

The  history  of  the  education  of  the  Catholic  people  of  Ireland 
during  the  century  preceding  their  emancipation,  is  a  record  of  a 
mighty  and  incessant  struggle  to  throw  off  the  shackles  of  repres- 
sion and  bigotry  that  thwarted  their  educational  progress.  To 
the  iniquitous  penal  laws  may  be  ascribed  the  almost  general 
illiteracy  and  misery  which  prevailed  among  the  great  bulk  of  the 
Irish  people  during  the  two  centuries  in  which  this  code  of  restric- 
tion was  enforced.  Its  direct  object,  according  to  Lecky,  was  "to 
reduce  the  Catholics  to  a  condition  of  the  most  extreme  and  brutal 
ignorance."  And  again:  "The  legislation  on  the  subject  of  Cath- 
olic education  may  be  briefly  described,  for  it  amounted  simply  to 
universal,  unqualified  and  unlimited  proscription."221  "Education 
— at  least  the  elementary —  was  in  consequence  mostly  confined  to 
two  sources,  that  of  the  priest,  and  the  "hedge"  schoolmaster, 
both  of  whom,  too,  were  in  constant  danger  of  forfeiting  their  life 
while  in  the  exercise  of  this  function.222 

Toward  the  latter  part  of  the  eighteenth  century  the  enforcement 
of  the  penal  code  somewhat  abated,  and  Catholics  could  breathe 
more  freely.  Gradually  new  laws  were  enacted  allowing  more  and 
more  liberty  in  educational  matters.2*3  Schools  were  opened,  and 
multiplied  rapidly.  However,  nearly  all  of  them  were  pay-schools, 
and  only  the  well-to-do  or  middle-class  could  avail  themselves  of 
the  opportunity.  By  far  the  greater  mass  of  the  people,  the  poor, 
were  left  pretty  much  to  shift  for  themselves  and  to  obtain  knowl- 
edge as  best  they  could.224 

mLecky  (as  quoted  in  the  Catholic  Encyclopedia,  Vol.  XIII,  576). 

i^Cf.  Thebaud,  Rev.  Aug.  J.,  S.  J.,  The  Irish  Race  in  the  Past  and  Present, 
318,  New  York,  1873. 

M3Thus,  the  law  of  1782  granted  to  Catholics  the  privilege  of  opening  then- 
own  schools,  with  the  restriction  however  of  obtaining  a  license  thereto  from 
the  Protestant  bishop  of  the  district.  Ten  years  later  (1792),  the  restriction 
in  question  was  removed,  and  the  Catholics  were  left  entirely  free  in  the  mat- 
ter. (Cath.  Encycl.  Vol.  XI,  616.) 

M4Often  the  poor  children  would  meet  in  some  private  dwelling,  situated  in 
an  alley  or  lane,  and  for  a  few  pence  a  week,  be  taught  by  persons  frequently 
unqualified  for  the  work. 

85 


86          ORIGIN  OF  THE  TEACHING  BROTHERHOODS 

It  is  true,  the  hierarchy  made  heroic  efforts  to  provide  the  neces- 
sary means  for  educating  the  poor  of  both  sexes.225  The  Ursulines 
and  Presentation  nuns  also  aided  considerably  in  the  education  of 
indigent  girls.  But  instruction  for,  the  poor  boys  proved  woefully 
inadequate.226  Their  condition  excited  the  sympathy  of  a  noble- 
hearted  merchant  of  Waterford,  who  became  God's  instrument  in 
the  founding  of  the  congregation  which  shall  be  the  subject  of  the 
following  pages. 

The  Christian  Brothers  of  Ireland  (popularly  known  as  the  Irish 
Christian  Brothers)  was  the  first  congregation  of  laymen  in  the 
country  to  devote  itself  to  the  education  of  youth,  with 
special  regard  for  the  poorer  class.  Its  founder,  Edmund  Ignatius 
Rice,  was  a  man  of  humble  pursuit  in  life,  but  richly  endowed  with 
the  sterling  qualities  of  mind  and  heart  which  eventually  led  him 
to  the  accomplishment  of  the  noble  task  designed  for  him  by 
Providence. 

He  was  of  a  very  respectable  ancestry,  and  was  born  in  June, 
1762,  at  Westcourt,  near  Callan,  in  County  Kilkenny.  After 
enjoying  a  comparatively  thorough  elementary  education  in  his 
home-town,  he  was  sent  to  the  city  of  Kilkenny  to  complete  his 
studies.  The  nature  of  his  education  was  more  or  less  in  prepara- 
tion for  a  business  career.  Accordingly  when  he  was  about  seven- 
teen years  of  age  he  left  for  Waterford  to  take  service  with  his 
uncle,  a  rich  and  influential  merchant  of  the  place. 

The  young  apprentice  acquitted  himself  so  well  in  his  new  pur- 
suit that  the  business  prospered  beyond  all  expectations.  Yet, 
though  he  was  apparently  very  deeply  engrossed  in  these  affairs,  he 
did  not  allow  them  to  interfere  in  the  least  with  his  ordinary 
spiritual  duties.  By  his  generosity  to  the  poor,  and  his  zealous 
participation  in  various  charitable  works,  he  won  the  esteem  and 
respect  of  all  with  whom  he  came  in  contact.227 

In  time  the  entire  business  of  his  uncle  passed  into  his  own  hands, 
and  with  it  prosperity  and  wealth  seemed  to  increase  day  by  day, 
a  fact  which,  instead  of  having  a  demoralizing  effect,  only  made 
him  more  humble  and  thankful  to  the  Almighty,  and  more  com- 
passionate to  the  poor.  He  became  one  of  the  most  active  mem- 


example,  The  Charitable  Society  of  the  city  of  Cork  was  founded 
(1791)  to  meet  this  particular  need.  (Cf.  A  Century  of  Education,  by  a  Chris- 
tian Brother,  91,  Dublin,  1916.) 

^Ibid.,  11. 

™Life  of  Edmund  Ignatius  Rice  (by  a  Christian  Brother),  9,  Dublin,  1916. 


CHRISTIAN    BROTHERS    OF   IRELAND  87 

bers  of  an  association  founded  in  Waterford  for  the  relief  of  the 
destitute.  The  nature  of  the  work  brought  him  in  close  touch 
with  human  misery,  and  aroused  in  him  those  deep  religious  senti- 
ments which  later  appeared  so  conspicuous  in  his  life  as  founder.228 

It  is  not  surprising,  therefore,  that  God  should  have  inspired  him 
with  the  desire  to  consecrate  himself  to  a  more  perfect  life.  He 
had  already  for  some  years  harbored  this  thought,  and  even  al- 
though the  business  had  developed  to  such  an  extent  as  to  absorb 
almost  all  his  time  and  attention,  the  inclination  seemed  now 
stronger  than  ever.  The  example  of  his  younger  brother,  John, 
who  had  entered  the  Augustinian  order,  also  tended  very  much 
to  confirm  him  in  his  resolution  of  abandoning  the  world  and 
retiring  to  some  monastery.229 

But  he  was  undecided  which  to  select.  His  first  thought  was  to 
join  his  brother,  but  the  latter,  from  all  accounts,  instead  of 
encouraging  Edmund  in  his  proposed  step,  advised  him  to  remain 
in  the  world,  to  attend  to  his  business  concerns,  and  pursue  the 
charitable  and  edifying  life  he  had  been  following  all  along. 

The  good  man,  however,  would  not  desist.  Being  naturally  of 
a  cautious  and  deliberative  turn  of  mind,  and  at  the  same  time 
wisely  distrustful  of  his  own  individual  judgment  in  the  matter,  he 
resolved  to  seek  further  counsel  and  advice. 

Among  those  whom  he  intended  to  consult  was  a  certain  Miss 
Power,  who,  besides  being  a  personal  and  esteemed  friend  of  his, 
was  a  lady  of  extraordinary  piety,  and  possessed  of  unusual 
sagacity  in  the  discernment  of  character.  In  all  confidence,  there- 
fore, he  manifested  to  her  his  intention  of  withdrawing  from  busi- 
ness, to  leave  for  the  continent  and  join  some  religious  community, 
possibly  in  the  city  of  Rome;  but,  to  his  utter  surprise,  she  was 
altogether  opposed  to  the  idea.  She  could  not  understand  that  he 
should  think  of  leaving  his  country,  of  concealing  himself  in  some 
far-off  monastery,  and  having  merely  his  own  personal  salvation 
in  view,  when  right  here,  in  his  native  land  there  were  so  many 
youths  in  most  dire  need  of  instruction  in  the  knowledge  of  God 
and  religion.  And  directing  his  attention  to  a  rude  set  of  boys  just 
then  passing  by,  she  exclaimed:  "What!  would  you  bury  yourself 
in  a  cell  on  the  continent  rather  than  devote  your  wealth  and  your 
life  to  the  spiritual  and  material  interests  of  these  poor  youths?"230 


K8Ibid.,  10.  »9Ibid.,  11. 

""Catholic  Encyclopedia,  Vol.  XIII,  40. 


88  ORIGIN    OF  THE   TEACHING    BROTHERHOODS 

Rice  was  deeply  impressed  by  the  interview,  and  he  felt  inclined 
to  believe  that  God  had  thus  manifested  His  will  through  the 
medium  of  this  good  woman.  There  were  great  difficulties,  to  be 
sure,  which  he  would  have  to  encounter  if  he  should  undertake  the 
kind  of  work  proposed;  yet,  he  was  encouraged  and  consoled  by 
the  thought  that,  if  God  so  ordained  he  should  enter  upon  a  life 
of  teaching,  he  certainly  ought  not  have  any  apprehension  of  the 
future.231  In  fact,  the  more  earnestly  he  prayed  and  reflected,  and 
the  oftener  his  attention  was  attracted  by  the  sight  of  neglected 
boys,  the  more  deep-rooted  became  his  conviction  that  instruction 
of  youth  was  to  be  his  future  work. 

Before  acting,  however,  Rice  desired  the  opinion  and  possible 
approval  of  the  hierarchy.  He  accordingly  first  called  on  the 
bishop  of  his  native  diocese,  Rt.  Rev.  Dr.  James  Lanigan,  who, 
besides  being  most  heartily  in  favor  of  the  project,  encouraged  his 
client  to  dispose  immediately  of  his  property,  and  to  invest  the 
proceeds  in  the  purchase  and  endowment  of  a  school  and  dwelling 
which  would  meet  the  requirements.  The  bishop  of  Waterford 
and  Lismore,  Rt.  Rev.  Dr.  Hussey,  likewise  expressed  his 
approval  of  the  idea,  and  in  blessing  the  future  founder,  dismissed 
him  with  the  assurance  of  his  ever-generous  cooperation.  Lastly, 
Rice  sought  the  advice  of  Rev.  John  Power,  the  future  successor  to 
Dr.  Hussey,  and  brother  of  the  lady  who  had  broached  the  subject 
to  him.  The  good  priest  was  very  enthusiastic  in  praise  of  the 
undertaking,  and  unhesitatingly  promised  his  friend  every  possible 
support.  His  decisive  and  convincing  arguments  dispelled  every 
vestige  of  doubt  and  hesitation  that  still  lingered  in  the  mind  of  the 
founder,  who,  unquestionably  certain  now  of  his  vocation,  hence- 
forth determined  to  make  the  venture,  implicitly  trusting  in 
God  for  success.232 

He  was  forty  years  old,  when  in  1802,  with  the  assistance  of  two 
young  men,  he  opened  his  first  school  in  a  building  improvised  for 
the  purpose.  It  was  soon  crowded  with  boys  of  various  ages,  the 
greater  majority  of  whom  were  rather  unwilling  to  conform  to  the 
rules  of  strict  discipline.  Order  and  good  conduct,  however,  were 
soon  attained  and  while  the  boys  were  being  taught  the  rudiments 
of  religion  and  profane  knowledge,  they  also  learned  to  revere  and 
respect  their  new  masters.233 

'"Life,  ibid.,  12. 
^Ibid.,  13. 
2«Cf.  ibid.,  15. 


CHRISTIAN    BROTHERS    OF    IRELAND  89 

It  seems  to  be  a  principle  with  Almighty  God  that  all  who  under- 
take a  work  for  His  greater  glory,  must  invariably  have  their 
periods  of  adversity  and  trial,  before  they  can  hope  that  their 
efforts  will  be  crowned  with  success.  Such  was  to  be  the  experi- 
ence of  the  present  founder.  His  two  assistants  after  some  time 
grew  impatient  and  dissatisfied  with  teaching,  and  finally  an- 
nounced their  intention  of  abandoning  the  work  altogether.  No 
inducements  could  prevail  upon  them  to  remain.  Their  action 
was  indeed  a  severe  blow  to  Mr.  Rice  as  he  was  obliged  to  take  over 
the  direction  of  all  the  children  himself;  nevertheless,  he  did  not 
lose  heart.  He  bravely  held  to  his  post  earnestly  praying  God  to 
come  to  his  relief;  nor  did  he  pray  in  vain.  Two  intelligent  young 
men  —  Thomas  Gravenor  and  Patrick  Finn  —  from  his  own  native 
town,  volunteered  their  services,  and  thus  relieved  the  situation.284 

The  school  seemed  to  assume  a  new  life,  and  its  influence  for 
good  became  more  manifest  to  the  citizens  of  Waterford  and  sur- 
roundings as  time  went  on. 

In  1803,  Rice  and  his  two  confreres  transferred  their  school  and 
residence  to  a  more  commodious  building  especially  constructed 
for  their  use.  It  occupied  a  slight  elevation  of  ground,  and  in  the 
blessing  ceremony  the  bishop  appropriately  referred  to  it  as 
"  Mount  Sion,"  which  name  it  has  retained  ever  since.235 

Both  bishop  and  clergy  were  unanimous  in  their  praise  of  the 
community.  And  not  only  this;  they  also  provided  financial 
assistance,  either  by  personal  contribution,  or  by  influencing 
wealthy  laymen  to  give  of  their  abundance.236  By  this  means  two 
additional  establishments  were  founded,  one  in  the  town  of  Car- 
rick-on-Suir  (1806),  and  another  in  Dungarvan  (1807),  making 
thus  far  three  flourishing  communities  within  the  diocese. 

By  the  year  1808  the  number  of  members  had  increased  to 
eight,  and  the  founder  thought  it  about  time  to  consider  the 
question  of  vows,  as  well  as  the  adoption  of  a  mode  of  life  conform- 
able to  a  regular  religious  community.  Accordingly,  at  a  general 
meeting  held  at  "  Mount  Sion"  (Waterford),  the  matter  was  given 
thorough  consideration;  and  on  the  Feast  of  the  Assumption  fol- 
lowing, all  the  members  took  annual  engagements  at  the  hands  of 
Bishop  Power.  As  regards  rules  and  constitutions,  they  provi- 


15. 
16. 
2*Cf.  ibid.,  16. 


90  ORIGIN    OF   THE   TEACHING    BROTHERHOODS 

sionally  adopted  a  modified  form  of  those  of  the  Presentation 
nuns.237  The  year  after,  while  again  assembled  at  the  same  place 
for  the  general  retreat,  seven  of  the  group  made  perpetual  vows 
and  received  a  distinctive  costume. 

They  could  now  truly  regard  themselves  as  a  religious  congrega- 
tion, and,  indeed,  the  name  "  Brothers,"  by  which  they  were 
henceforth  known  within  their  own  circle  as  well  as  by  the  public, 
also  exteriorly  designated  them  as  such.  Their  numbers  increased 
with  their  reputation,  and  in  time,  the  founder — now  known  as 
Brother  Ignatius — was  enabled  to  extend  his  schools  even  beyond 
the  diocese.  Thus,  important  establishments  were  founded  at 
Cork,  Dublin,  Limerick  and  other  places. 

It  must  be  noted  here  that,  although  the  Brothers  generally  made 
their  novitiate  at  Waterford  (Mount  Sion),  and  faithfully  recog- 
nized Brother  Ignatius  as  founder  of  the  institute  and  common 
father,  yet,  he  was  not  their  superior;  each  house  was  independent, 
and  only  under  the  direct  jurisdiction  of  the  bishop  of  the  diocese 
in  which  it  was  located.  A  change,  however,  came  about  event- 
ually as  we  shall  see  further  on. 

No  very  definite  form  of  life  had  as  yet  been  adopted,  and  no 
specific  attempt  had  been  made  to  that  effect  until  the  year  1817, 
when,  at  the  earnest  solicitation  and  advice  of  Dr.  Murray,  coad- 
jutor archbishop  of  Dublin,  Brother  Rice  assembled  the  different 
local  superiors  at  Mount  Sion  for  the  purpose  of  finally  deciding  the 
question.  The  rules  and  constitutions  of  the  Brothers  of  the 
Christian  Schools  (France)  served  as  subject  for  discussion.238 
After  seven  days'  deliberation  it  was  unanimously  decided  that 
"they  adopt  a  form  of  government  similar  to  that  outlined  in  the 

M7This  congregation  was  founded  in  Cork  (1756)  by  Miss  Nano  Nagle,  and 
had  for  object  the  gratuitous  instruction  of  poor  girls.  (Cf.  Heimbucher, 
ibid.,  554.) 

238Bishop  Murray,  with  whom  the  founder  had  very  intimate  relations, 
was  one  of  the  most  zealous  advocates  and  active  promoters  of  Catholic  edu- 
cation in  Ireland.  While  on  a  visit  to  Rome  in  1816  he  met  Rev.  Father 
Kenny — another  esteemed  friend  of  the  Brothers — and  also  the  superior 
general  of  the  Christian  Brothers  (France).  Both  the  bishop  and  Father 
Kenny  had  frequent  conversations  with  the  Brother,  and  obtained  valuable 
information  regarding  the  organization  and  government  of  his  institute.  On 
the  return  trip  the  bishop  stopped  a  short  time  with  the  Brothers  in  Paris, 
and  he  thus  had  opportunity  to  come  in  closer  touch  with  them,  to  observe 
their  life  in  community,  and  also  learn  their  particular  methods  of  teaching. 
Before  leaving  they  presented  him  with  a  copy  of  their  rules  and  constitutions. 
And  on  his  arrival  home  he  acquainted  Brother  Rice  with  all  he  had  heard  and 
seen,  while,  at  the  same  time,  he  handed  him  the  book  with  the  suggestion 
that  he  study  it  carefully  in  view  of  possible  guidance  in  drawing  up  his  own 
rules  and  regulations. 


PATRICIAN    BROTHERS  91 

Brief  of  the  French  Institute,  with  rules  and  constitutions  suited 
to  their  own  country,  and  partly  based  on  those  of  the  above  men- 
tioned Brothers.239  It  was  furthermore  agreed  that  a  petition  be 
sent  to  the  Holy  Father  requesting  his  approbation  of  the  insti- 
tute. This  was  accordingly  done;  but  it  was  only  after  a  period  of 
three  years — in  1820 — that  Pope  Pius  VII  finally  approved  the 
new  association  of  "Fratres  Monachi"  as  a  religious  congregation, 
and  extended  to  it  the  Brief  by  which  in  1725  Benedict  XIII  had 
confirmed  the  Institute  of  the  Brothers  of  St.  de  la  Salle.240 

According  to  the  tenor  of  the  Brief  the  scattered  communities 
were  henceforth  consolidated,  and  at  a  general  chapter  held  in 
1822 — the  first  in  the  institute — Brother  Ignatius  was  unani- 
mously elected  superior  general.  Only  one  house  was  not  repre- 
sented in  the  general  union,  namely  that  of  Cork.  The  bishop, 
Right  Rev.  Dr.  Murphy,  seemed  contented  with  the  old  arrange- 
ment, and  would  not  permit  his  Brothers  to  join  their  confreres; 
however,  in  1826,  the  prelate  finally  granted  them  liberty,  and 
they,  too,  united  with  the  general  body.241 

The  institute  being  thus  firmly  established,  with  a  central  gov- 
ernment and  definite  organization,  it  spread  and  developed  more 
rapidly  than  ever.  Its  founder,  Brother  Ignatius,  ruled  as  sup- 
rior  for  many  years,  until  1838,  when,  owing  to  advanced  age  and 
weakening  health,  he  committed  the  office  to  another.  His  death 
occurred  in  August,  1844. 

The  Brothers  have  since  established  themselves  in  various  parts 
of  the  world,242  and  their  work  in  the  field  of  education  is  worthy  of 
special  commendation,  including  in  its  activities  numerous  schools, 
colleges  and  academies,  together  with  several  technical  and  indus- 
trial institutions. 

PATRICIAN  BROTHERS     (1808) 

This  congregation,  known  also  as  the  "  Brothers  of  St.  Pat- 
rick," was  founded  in  1808,  by  Right  Rev.  Dr.  Delaney,  bishop  of 
Kildare  and  Leighlin,  at  Tullow,  County  Carlow,  Ireland.  Its 
object  is  the  secular  and  religious  instruction  of  youth. 

M9Life,  ibid.,  21,  22;  cf.  Ravelet,  ibid.,  530. 

""Catholic  Encyclopedia,  Vol.  XIII,  41,  576. 

M1Only  one  of  the  community  preferred  independent  service  with  the  bishop. 
(A  Century  of  Catholic  Education,  ibid.,  21  ff.) 

"'For  example,  in  the  United  States  and  Canada,  which  form  the  Ameri- 
can province,  there  are  at  present  five  houses  in  each,  with  a  total  of  eighty- 
five  members. 


92          ORIGIN  OF  THE  TEACHING  BROTHERHOODS 

As  first  members  of  the  foundation,  Bishop  Delaney  selected 
seven  young  men  from  among  the  catechists  of  the  Sunday  schools. 
With  these  he  began  the  work.  Under  personal  instruction  and 
direction  by  the  bishop  and  his  successor,  Dr.  Doyle,  the  young 
community  was  gradually  formed  into  a  diocesan  institution.  As 
the  congregation  increased  in  membership,  separate  communi- 
ties were  founded  in  different  dioceses,  each  directly  subject  to  the 
ordinary. 

Thus  matters  proceeded  until  September  8,  1893,  when  Rome, 
in  approving  the  rules  and  constitutions,  permitted  the  adoption 
of  a  central  government  in  the  Brotherhood;  henceforth  all  the 
different  houses  came  under  direction  of  one  superior  general. 

The  community,  in  its  educational  activities,  embraces  a  wide 
area,  ranging  from  the  primary  grades  to  the  university.  Espec- 
ially to  be  noted,  are  its  schools  in  foreign  parts,  for  example, 
those  in  India  and  Australia,  where  the  Brothers  conduct  a  number 
of  flourishing  colleges.243 

FRANCISCAN  BROTHERS     (1818) 

The  Third  Order  of  St.  Francis,  as  originally  founded  (122*1),  was 
intended  only  for  people  living  in  the  world.  Yet,  almost  from  its 
very  inception,  many  pious  souls,  actuated  by  a  generous  impulse, 
took  upon  themselves,  besides  the  observance  of  the  ordinary 
rules,  also  that  of  the  obligation  of  the  three  vows  of  religion. 
They  were  henceforth  designated  as  the  Regular  Tertiaries  of  St. 
Francis,  commonly  known,  too,  as  the  Brothers  and  Sisters  of  the 
Third  Order  Regular. 

Congregations  rapidly  sprang  up  in  every  country  of  Europe, 
each  independent  of  the  other,  and,  though  all  observed  a  common 
rule,244  each  had  its  own  constitutions. 

In  1818,  a  branch  of  this  order  was  founded  in  Ireland,  at  Mount 
Bellew,  county  Galway  (archdiocese  of  Tuam),  by  Brothers 
Michael  Dillon  and  Bonaventure  Lee.  The  object  and  purpose 
of  the  foundation  was  to  make  provision  for  the  education  of  youth. 

At  first,  the  community  was  under  obedience  to  the  superior  of 
the  Friars  Minor.  In  1830,  however,  the  Brothers  petitioned  the 

M3Catholic  Encyclopedia,  Vol.  XI,  553,  and  cf.  Heimbucher,  ibid.,  357. 

'"Originally  the  members  observed  the  rule  of  Nicholas  IV;  now,  they  all 
follow  that  of  Leo  X.  (The  Catholic  Church  in  the  United  States,  ibid., 
249.) 


FRANCISCAN    BROTHERS  93 

Holy  See  to  be  placed  under  the  dependency  of  the  ordinary  of 
Tuam.  After  due  examination  of  the  constitutions,  Pope  Pius 
VIII  granted  their  request  by  a  rescript,  dated  November  19,  of 
the  same  year. 

In  time  the  community  founded  several  houses  in  the  United 
States,  for  example,  at  Loretto,  Pa.,  Brooklyn,  N.  Y.,  and  Spald- 
ing,  Neb.  The  first  was  opened  in  1847  on  request  of  Bishop 
O'Connor  of  Pittsburgh.  A  group  of  six  Brothers  established 
themselves  at  Loretto,  where  they  founded  a  monastery  and  col- 
lege. The  year  after  their  arrival  (1848),  they  obtained  a  re- 
script from  Rome  placing  them  under  the  immediate  jurisdiction 
of  the  bishop. 

On  May  31,  1858,  two  Brothers  from  the  same  Irish  congrega- 
tion were  invited  to  Brooklyn,  by  Right  Rev.  Bishop  John  Lough- 
lin.  As  the  community  increased  in  numbers,  it  also  was  granted 
(December  15,  1859)  the  privilege  of  autonomy,  and  became  an 
independent  congregation  directly  subject  to  the  bishop.245 

The  Spalding  community  was  a  branch  of  the  Brooklyn  congre- 
gation. 

In  1906  and  1908,  respectively,  the  Spalding  and  Loretto  com- 
munities merged  into  the  Italian  congregation  of  the  Fathers  of 
the  Third  Order  Regular.246 

The  Brooklyn  branch,  however,  has  continued  its  separate  exis- 
tence, and  devotes  itself  exclusively  to  education.  It  numbers  at 
present  sixty-seven  Brothers,  and  has  under  direction:  one  col- 
lege, two  academies,  one  select  school,  one  summer  school,  and 
fourteen  parish  schools.247 

PRESENTATION  BROTHERS     (1826) 

This  congregation,  an  outgrowth  of  the  Irish  Christian  Brothers, 
originated  at  Cork,  Ireland,  about  the  year  1826. 

Until  1889,  the  Brotherhood  was  constituted  on  a  basis  similar 
to  that  of  the  parent  stock,  viz.,  all  the  individual  communities 
were  diocesan  foundations.  About  the  time  mentioned,  new  con- 
stitutions were  framed,  and  the  different  houses  united  under  one 
superior  general. 

™  Rules  and  Constitutions  of  the  Community,  Introduction,  3  ff.,  Brooklyn, 
New  York. 

24*The  Catholic  Church  in  the  United  States,  ibid.,  248. 

"'Constitutions,  ibid.,  Art.  I,  and  The  Catholic  Church  in  the  United 
States,  ibid.,  251  ff. 


94          ORIGIN  OF  THE  TEACHING  BROTHERHOODS 

Its  constitutions  were  confirmed  and  approved  by  Leo  XIII. 

Since  that  time,  the  institute  has  made  remarkable  progress, 
which  is  especially  evidenced  by  the  great  number  of  educational 
establishments  founded  in  Ireland,  England  and  Canada. 

In  its  range  of  activity  are  included :  primary  schools,  colleges, 
technical  and  industrial  schools  and  orphanages.248 

XAVERIAN  BROTHERS     (1839) 

This  Brotherhood,  also  known  as  the  Congregation  of  the  Broth- 
ers of  St.  Francis  Xavier,  was  founded  in  1839,  at  Bruges,  Belgium, 
by  a  pious  layman,  Theodore  James  Ryken.  He  was  born  August 
30,  1797,  at  Elshout,  a  little  city  in  North  Brabant,  Holland. 
Having  lost  his  parents  in  early  youth,  he  was  brought  up  by  his 
uncle,  a  man  noted  for  his  piety  and  uprightness  of  character.  To 
him  in  a  special  manner  young  Ryken  owed  that  firm  will  power 
which  distinguished  him  throughout  his  after  career,  and  which 
also  greatly  aided  him  in  the  accomplishment  of  the  designs  of  God 
in  his  regard. 

At  the  age  of  nineteen  he  devoted  much  of  his  time  to  the  teach- 
ing of  Christian  doctrine,  a  practice  which,  while  it  apparently 
suited  his  disposition,  also  gave  indication  of  his  trend  of  mind. 
This  became  more  evident  six  years  later  when  he  volunteered  his 
services  as  assistant  to  the  celebrated  convert  and  writer,  LeSage- 
ten-Broek,  who  shortly  before  had  founded  an  asylum  for  orphans 
and  destitute  boys. 

During  the  four  years  in  which  Ryken  labored  in  this  capacity 
there  developed  within  him  an  inclination  toward  a  life  especially 
devoted  to  the  education  of  youth.  He  felt  the  call  of  God,  and 
with  characteristic  firmness  and  generosity  he  determined  to 
found  a  congregation  of  men  who  would  aid  him  in  this  under- 
taking.249 

He  patiently  waited,  however,  until  Providence  manifested  the 
time  and  opportunity  to  carry  out  his  idea.  To  establish  a  com- 
munity whose  sphere  of  activity  would  be  solely  confined  to  his 
own  country  seems  to  have  been  foreign  to  his  mind,  for  his 
thoughts  turned  toward  the  New  World.  He  accordingly  visited 
America  in  1831,  and  before  his  return  to  Europe  three  years  later, 

248Catholic  Encyclopedia,  Vol.  XII,  399. 

^'Brother  Cajetan,  History  of  the  Xaverian  Brothers,  10,  Baltimore,  1911. 


XAVERIAN    BROTHERS  95 

he  had  arrived  at  the  conclusion  that  he  would  make  this  country 
the  principal  seat  of  his  labors.250  On  his  second  visit  in  1837,  he 
had  an  interview  with  the  bishop  of  St.  Louis,  Missouri,  the  Rt. 
Rev.  Mgr.  Rosati,  who,  besides  encouraging  him  in  his  proposed 
undertaking,  advised  him  to  establish  his  community  in  the  Cath- 
olic country  of  Belgium,  where  he  undoubtedly  would  have  the 
best  prospects  of  success. 

Having  obtained  the  venerable  prelate's  written  recommenda- 
tion, as  well  as  additional  testimonial  letters  from  several  other 
bishops  of  the  country,  he  left  for  Belgium,  and  on  his  arrival  he 
immediately  presented  himself  to  Mgr.  Boussens,  the  bishop  of 
Bruges.  His  project  was  very  favorably  regarded,  but  he  was 
told  that  before  any  action  could  be  taken  in  the  matter  he  would 
be  obliged  to  pass  a  year's  novitiate  with  the  Redemptorist  Fathers 

at  St.  Trond.251 

His  time  of  probation  over,  he  was  authorized  by  the  bishop 
(June  5,  1839)  to  begin  the  work.  But  no  sooner  had  Ryken 
revealed  his  intention  and  design  to  the  public,  when  opposition 
and  difficulties  confronted  him  on  all  sides.  Yet  he  adhered  to  his 
plan. 

After  he  had  succeeded  in  securing  a  building  for  his  purpose,  he 
tried  to  obtain  worthy  subjects.  His  first  two  attempts  at  re- 
cruitment did  not  materialize,  but  still  he  courageously  persevered 
in  his  endeavors,  especially  placing  his  confidence  in  St.  Joseph. 
Nor  was  he  disappointed  in  his  hopes.  On  the  occasion  of  a  visit 
to  his  native  district  in  Holland,  he  chanced  to  meet  two  young 
men  who  consented  to  join  him.  As  both,  however,  could  not  be 
accepted  immediately,  the  question  of  choice  was  to  be  decided  by 
lot.  Anthony  Melis,  afterward  Brother  Ignatius,  was  the  one 
selected ;  the  other,  who  was  to  follow  three  months  later,  changed 
his  resolution  by  that  time  and  remained  in  the  world.  Further- 
more, the  two  travelers  while  on  their  way  to  Bruges  stopped  off 
at  St.  Trond,  where  they  were  joined  by  another  young  man  who 
had  expressly  called  at  the  monastery  in  quest  of  advice  about  en- 
tering some  religious  institute.  Together  the  three  arrived  at 
Bruges,  June  11,  1840,  and  without  further  delay  entered  upon 
their  life  of  retirement. 


250Ibid.,  13,  56. 

^Brother  Francis  Xauier  (Theodore  James  Ryken)  A  Life  Sketch,  by  two  of 
his  first  disciples,  6,  Baltimore,  1904. 


96  ORIGIN    OF  THE   TEACHING   BROTHERHOODS 

With  the  assistance  of  a  friendly  Jesuit,  Rev.  Father  Van  Kerk- 
hoven,  a  constitution  and  rule  was  drawn  up,  according  to  which 
the  little  community  was  to  regulate  its  government  and  form  of 
life.252  Its  present  name  was  also  adopted,  with  St.  Francis 
Xavier  as  special  patron. 

In  December,  1843,  some  of  the  members  of  the  community 
received  the  religious  habit  and  also  their  name  of  religion. 

During  the  year  following  (1844),  the  founder — henceforth 
Brother  Francis  Xavier — was  able  to  open  his  first  school  at 
Bruges,  known  then  as  "ficole  Primaire,"  an  establishment  which 
later,  under  the  name  of  St.  Xavier's  Institute  (now  St.  Xavier's 
College),  assumed  such  an  importance  as  to  rank  among  the  first 
of  its  kind  in  the  country.253  Other  educational  institutions  fol- 
lowed in  the  course  of  time. 

Finally,  on  October  22,  1846,  the  Brothers  took  religious  vows, 
thereby  conferring  upon  the  congregation  the  indelible  impress  of 
religion  and  firm  establishment. 

On  January  25,  1860,  the  founder  resigned  from  further  active 
participation  in  the  government  of  the  institute.  He  thenceforth 
lived  more  or  less  in  seclusion  until  his  death,  which  occurred 
November  26,  187 1.264  Under  his  successor,  Brother  Vincent,  the 
congregation  was  honored  (1865)  by  Pius  IX  with  a  Brief  of 
encouragement,  which,  of  course,  is  tantamont  to  approval.255 

In  regard  to  the  development  of  the  congregation  it  is  remarka- 
ble how  early  it  extended  its  educational  activities.  Thus,  in  1846, 
the  Brothers  were  called  to  England,  and  eight  years  after  (1854), 
the  founder  himself  with  six  companions  started  for  America.  In 
the  latter  country  especially,  the  congregation  has  had  its  greatest 
expansion.  For  example,  at  present  there  are  in  the  United  States 
about  300  Brothers  in  control  of  various  educational  institutions 
comprising  colleges  and  academies,  together  with  a  number  of 
parochial  and  industrial  schools. 


2S2The  constitutions  received  episcopal  approbation  in  September  1840,  and 
the  bishop's  approval  of  the  congregation  is  dated  the  October  following. 
(Brother  Cajetan,  ibid.,  14,  16.) 

^Ibid.,  18.  In  this  connection  it  may  be  noted  that  according  to  the  con- 
stitutions of  the  congregation,  the  members  are  not  limited  to  any  particular 
line  of  educational  work.  (Cf .  Const,  and  Holy  Ride  of  the  Xaverian  Brothers, 
Art.  1,  3,  p.  3,  4,  Bruges,  1900.) 

^Cf.  Brother  Cajetan,  ibid.,  27  ff. 

M6Catholic  Encyclopedia,  Vol.  XV,  728.  The  congregation  from  its  very 
inception  has  been  and  is  still  under  the  direct  jurisdiction  of  the  bishop  of 
Bruges.  (Const.,  Art.  1,  p.  5.) 


BROTHERS   OF   TILBURG  97 

BROTHERS  OF  TILBURG     (1844) 

This  institute,  often  referred  to  as  the  "Brothers  of  Charity  of 
our  Lady,  Mother  of  Mercy,"  was  established  at  Tilburg,  Holland, 
by  Rev.  J.  Zwijsen,  later  archbishop  of  Utrecht.  The  Brothers, 
to  the  number  of  600  (among  these  25  priests),  are  spread  through- 
out the  Netherlands  with  several  educational  institutions  under 
their  direction.2*6 

BROTHERS  OF  ST.  ALOYSIUS     (1849) 

This  congregation  was  founded  at  Oudenbosch,  Holland,  in 
1 849,  by  the  Cistercian  Father,  Rev.  William  Hellemons,  with  the 
assistance  of  Rev.  Vincent  Huybrecht.  Its  purpose  is  chiefly 
educational,  and  among  its  establishments  especially  to  be  noted, 
is  a  very  flourishing  high  school257  in  Amsterdam.  The  Brother- 
hood has  also  been  active  in  the  apostolic  vicariate  of  Batavia  ever 
since  1862. 

Its  statutes  were  approved  by  the  Holy  See,  April  2,  1887.*8 

"•Heimbucher,  ibid.,  361. 

*7The  grade  of  the  school  in  question  most  probably  is  equivalent  to  that 
of  the  German  ober-realschule. 
"•Heimbucher,  ibid.,  361. 


PART  IV 

TEACHING  COMMUNITIES  IN  MISSIONARY  COUNTRIES 

The  following  teaching  Brotherhoods  are  employed  on  the  mis- 
sions, and  as  hardly  any  data  is  available,  a  mere  mention  of  them 
must  suffice: 

(1)  Brothers  of  Our  Lady  of  the  Annunciation,  a  congregation  of 
teaching  Brothers,  native  to  the  diocese  of  Oran,  in  Algeria, 
Africa,  with  mother-house  at  Misserghin.259 

(2)  Brothers  of  St.  Joseph  (India),  founded  at  Bangalur  (My- 
sore), British  India,  by  Rev.  J.  A.  Chevalier,  vicar-apostolic  of  the 
above  State. 

(3)  A  congregation  of  Catechists  of  Anduc,  West  Cochin-China. 

(4)  The  Teaching  Brothers  of  Our  Lady  (China),  founded  by 
Rev.  V.  Garnier,  S.  J.  (fl898),  vicar-apostolic  of  Kiang-nan. 

(5)  Brothers  of  St.  Joseph  (Ceylon),  established  by  Rev.  C.  E. 
Bonjean,  O.  M.  J.,  later  archbishop  of  Colombo  (fl892). 

(6)  The  native  Brothers  of  St.  Peter  Claver,  among  the  missions 
of  the  Fathers  of  the  Holy  Ghost  (French  Congo).260 

^'Catholic  Encyclopedia,  Vol.  XI,  266. 
5SOHeimbucher,  ibid.,  364. 


98 


PART  V 

BROTHERHOODS  INCIDENTALLY  ENGAGED  IN 
TEACHING 

The  communities  mentioned  below  have  as  their  special  object 
spiritual  and  corporal  works  of  mercy,  and  take  up  teaching, 
properly  so  called,  only  as  a  secondary  matter. 

(1)  1807.     Brothers  of  Charity.961     Founder,  Rev.  P.  J.  Triest, 
Ghent,  Belgium. 

(2)  1830.     Brothers  of  Our  Lady  of  Lourdes.™    Rev.   E.   M. 
Glorieux,  Renaix,  Belgium. 

(3)  1835.     Brothers  of  St.   Joseph.     L'abbe*   J.   Rey,   Oullina, 
France. 

(4)  1839.     Brothers  of  St.  Francis  of  Assisi.     L'abbe*  G.  Des- 
hayes,  Saint-Laurent-sur-Sevre,  France. 

(5)  1840.     Brothers  of  the  Immaculate  Conception  and  of  St. 
Vincent  de  Paul.     Rev.  L.  Rutten  and  B.  Hoecken,  Maastricht, 
Holland. 

(6)  1845.     Brothers  of  St.   Vincent  de  Paul.     M.  Le  Provost, 
Paris,  France. 

(7)  1850.     Brothers  of  St.  Francis  Regis.     L'abb6  de  Bussy,  3.  J., 
Le  Puy,  France. 

(8)  1851.     Brothers  of  Our  Lady   of  Seven  Dolors.     Rev.   P. 
Hessefeld  and  Rev.  A.  Frentrop,  Amsterdam,  Holland. 

(9)  1855.     Brothers  of  the  Holy  Infancy  and  Youth  of  Jesus™ 
Rt.  Rev.  Bishop  Timon,  Buffalo,  United  States. 

(10)  1864.     Brothers  of  St.  Joseph.™     Right  Rev.  Bishop  Ket- 
teler,  Klein-Zimmern,  Germany. 

•"This  community  has  a  number  of  educational  institutions  in  Holland  and 
Belgium,  most  of  them  of  primary  grade,  two  establishments  in  Canada,  and 
one  in  Boston,  Mass. 

•"These  Brothers  have  a  house  of  studies  and  boarding  school  at  South  Park, 
Wash. 

•"The  central-house  of  this  congregation  is  located  at  Lackawanna,  N.  Y. 

»«Cf.  Heimbucher,  ibid.,  356  ff.;  Marchand,  ibid.,  349,  369. 


99 


CONCLUSION 

Anyone  can  readily  understand  why  the  Catholic  Church  should 
maintain  its  own  schools,  but  why  there  should  be  such  an  array 
and  diversity  of  teaching  organizations  does  not  seem  equally 
clear.  The  existence  of  so  many  different  Teaching  Brotherhoods 
— at  the  present  time  almost  thirty — has  been  found  to  be  due  to 
various  reasons:  (1)  Some  have  been  called  into  being  to  meet  a 
national  need,  e.  g.  certain  of  the  communities  that  arose  in  France 
in  the  beginning  of  the  19th  century;  (2)  others  answered  to  some 
diocesan  need,  e.  g.,  a  number  in  France,  and  those  of  Ireland;  and 
(3)  a  few  originated  in  response  to  some  rural  need.  Each  country 
in  which  they  arose  had  necessities  in  this  respect  which  could  be 
met  by  no  other  existing  order  or  congregation  of  teachers.  France 
affords  an  instance  in  point:  the  great  number  was  there  called 
forth  as  a  means  of  counteracting  the  evil  effects  of  the  Revolu- 
tion of  1789.  Diocesan  foundations  were  especially  numerous, 
and  as  each  bishop  exercised  an  independent  jurisdiction  in  his 
diocese,  we  can  see  how  it  was  possible  that  many  Brotherhoods 
should  have  thus  originated.  In  time,  of  course,  most  of  these 
spread  beyond  the  limits  of  their  original  sphere  of  action. 

The  Catholic  Church,  too,  has  been  exceptionally  tolerant  in 
regard  to  these  foundations.  She  has  left  her  children  perfect 
freedom  in  the  matter,  and  has  never  interfered  nor  limited  the 
number  of  teaching  communities.  It  is  but  another  proof  of  her 
progressive  spirit  and  unlimited  capacity  to  adjust  and  adapt 
herself  to  various  needs  that  may  arise. 

We  may  further  draw  attention  to  the  fact  that  the  existence  of 
this  great  number  of  teaching  bodies  far  from  being  a  source  of 
weakness  as  a  divided  force,  is  rather  just  the  contrary  since  each 
contributes  to  the  general  influence  by  its  distinctive  individuality, 
its  characteristic  organization,  dominating  spirit,  methods  of 
teaching,  etc.  One,  for  example,  is  imbued  with  animating  zeal 
for  the  revival  and  extension  of  popular  education,  another  is 
actuated  by  truly  altruistic  motives  in  generously  and  heroically 
laboring  for  the  regeneration  of  society.  No  two  are  exactly  alike. 
Yet  all  of  them  have  ultimately  the  same  spiritual  end  in  view :  the 
sanctification  and  eternal  happiness  of  their  constituent  members, 
as  well  as  that  of  youth  entrusted  to  them;  they  differ  only  in  the 
application  of  the  Catholic  principles  underlying  true  happiness 
and  prosperity  here  and  hereafter.  We  must  therefore  conclude 
that  in  the  convergence  of  these  individual  forces  toward  one  and 
the  same  final  goal,  there  is  imparted  to  the  Catholic  School  System 
throughout  the  world,  a  power  for  good  which  redounds  to  the 
welfare  of  both  the  individual  and  the  social  body,  and  leads  to  the 
attainment  of  the  highest  ideal  of  culture  and  civilization. 

100 


CONCLUSION  IQl. 


Yet  despite  the  most  convincing  evidence  and  facts  that  are 
indisputable,  these  teaching  bodies  are  not  given  due  credit  by 
certain  noted  historians  of  education.  Whatever  breathes  the  air 
of  Catholicism  is  to  some  always  liable  to  suspicion,  if  not  to  open 
hostility.  They  ask  for  example,  how  it  is  possible  that  men  lead- 
ing a  celibate  life  and  more  or  less  estranged  from  society,  especi- 
ally direct  family  intercourse,  can  have  any  thorough  knowledge  of 
child-nature.  Without  entering  into  detail  it  may  be  mentioned 
that  like  the  celibate  clergy  the  members  of  these  teaching  asso- 
ciations adopt  this  form  of  life  as  a  permanent  state  of  existence; 
they  make  teaching  their  life-work,  and  thus  devote  all  their  time 
and  energy  to  this  special  calling.  We  know  from  statistics  rela- 
tive to  elementary  education,  that  the  great  majority  of  public 
school  teachers — and  these  mostly  young  and  inexperienced 
women — retain  their  position  until  the  marriageable  age,  on  an 
average,  therefore,  of  only  three  or  four  years,  with  the  conse- 
quence "that  between  four  and  five  million  boys  and  girls  in  our 
public  schools  receive  all  of  their  formal  education  from  teachers 
who  are  scarcely  more  than  boys  and  girls  themselves."286  One 
can  readily  infer  that  the  advantages  are  overwhelmingly  in 
favor  of  the  above  religious  communities. 

Candidates  for  the  public  teaching  profession  are  often  advised, 
for  example,  by  such  historians  as  those  referred  to  above,  to  make 
a  thorough  study  of  Rousseau's  Emile,  as  being  a  standard  work  in 
child  psychology,  and  yet  everyone  knows  what  little  intimate 
relations  the  author  himself  had  with  his  own  offspring.  Surely 
no  further  argument  is  needed  to  prove  that  there  exist  ample 
opportunities  throughout  the  school-day  for  the  proper  psycholog- 
ical study  of  childhood  in  the  case  of  those  not  permitted  the  op- 
portunity within  the  family  circle.  And  taking  facts  as  they  are,  the 
Church  is  evidently  willing  that  the  products  of  her  schools  be 
compared  with  those  of  the  State  institutions;  she  has  learned  to 
fear  nothing  from  the  comparison.  The  system  of  pedagogy  in  use 
among  the  religious  congregations  is  by  no  means  "afraid  of  life 
and  liberty,"  nor  is  it  "one  which  reduces  teacher  and  pupils  to 
mere  machines,"  as  Compayre*  would  have  us  believe.268  His 
unfounded  attacks  are  directed  especially  against  the  Brothers  of 
the  Christian  Schools,  but  indirectly  affect  every  Catholic  teaching 
body.  The  unprejudiced  historian,  however,  will  find  no  convinc- 
ing ground  to  support  them.  On  the  contrary,  a  careful  study  of 
the  teaching  organizations  such  as  those  treated  above,  will  give 
him  another  intimate  view  of  the  comprehensive  and  intensive 
character  of  the  educational  work  of  the  Catholic  Church. 

"•Bagley,  W.  C.  School  Discipline,  24,  New  York,  1915;  cf.  Monroe,  P. 
Cyclopedia  of  Education,  Vol.  IV,  514. 

*6Compayr6,  G.  History  of  Pedagogy,  trans,  by  W.  H.  Payne,  266,  Boa- 
ton,  1910. 


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1733. 
BROTHERS  OF  THE  CHRISTIAN  SCHOOLS.     Annales  de  Vlnstitut  des  Freres  de* 

Scoles  Chritiennes.     2  vols.     Paris,  1882. 

Rules  of  the  Brothers  of  the  Christian  Schools.     Paris,  1905. 
BROTHERS  OF  THE  SOCIETY  OF  MARY.     Constitutions  of  the  Brothers  of  the 

Society  of  Mary.     Dayton,  1892. 
BROTHERS  OF  ST.  GABRIEL.     Notice  Historique — Les  Freres  de  St.  Gabriel  dans 

L'Amerique  du  Nord.     Roulers,  Belgium,  1913. 
BUISSON,  F.    Dictionnaire  de  Pedagogic.     4  vols.     Paris,  1886. 
CATHOLIC  EDITING  COMPANY.     The  Catholic  Church  in  the  United  States.    2 

vols.     New  York,  1912. 

CATHOLIC  ENCYCLOPEDIA.     15  vols.    New  York,  1913. 
CURRIER,    RIGHT   REV.    CHARLES    WARREN.     History   of   Religious  Orders. 

New  York,  1896. 

FONTENEAU,  P.  P.     Vie  Bienheureux  L.  M.  Grignion  de  Montfort.     Paris,  1887. 
FRANCISCAN  BROTHERS.     Rules  and  Constitutions  of  the  Community.     Brook- 
lyn, N.  Y. 
GIESELER,  J.  C.     Text-book  of  Ecclesiastical  History.    3  vols.     Philadelphia, 

1836. 

GRUBE,  KARL.     Gerhard  Groot  und  seine  Stiftungen.     Koeln,  1883. 
HEIMBUCHER,  M.     Die  Orden  und  Kongregationen  der  Katholischen  Kirchc 

3  vols.     Paderborn,  1908. 
H£LYOT,  R.  P.  AND  BADICHE.     Dictionnaire  des  Ordres  Religieux.    2  vols. 

(collection  Migne).     Paris,  1847. 
IRISH  CHRISTIAN  BROTHERS.     A  Century  of  Education.     Dublin,  1916. 

Life  of  Edmund  Ignatius  Rice.     Dublin,  1916. 
LAVBILLE,  MGR.     Le  Bienheureux  Louis-Marie  Grignion  de  Montfort  etses 

families  religieuses.     Tours,  1916. 

Jean-Marie  de  la  Mennais.     2  vols.     Vannes,  1911. 
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W(i ksamkeit  der  Brueder  des  gem.  l^ebens.     Leipzig,  1886. 
MANSI.     f  ottectio  Amplissima  ConcUiorum.     Parisiis,  1901. 
MARCHAND,  ALFRED.     Moines  et  Nonnes.     2  vols.     Paris,  1880. 
MARIST  BROTHERS  OF  THE  SCHOOLS.     Life  and  Spirit  of  J.  B.  M.  Champagnat. 

New  York,  1887. 
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Life  of  the  Venerabk  Father  Colin.     St.  Louis,  1909. 

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RAVKLKT,  AHMAND.     Blessed  John  Baptist  <U  In  Sulk.     P:irU.   isss 
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Chaminade,   Fondateur  den  Marianistes.     Paris,   1913. 
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SCIIAFF-HKUZ<><;.     Encyclopedia.     12  vols.     New  York,  1908-1912. 
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VITA 

Brother  John  Joseph  Schuetz,  S.  M.,  was  born  in  Toledo,  Ohio, 
October  22, 1874.  He  was  educated  in  St.  Mary's  parochial  school 
(Jesuits)  in  the  same  city.  In  1889,  he  entered  the  Society  of  the 
Brothers  of  Mary,  Dayton,  Ohio,  and  after  due  normal  training 
was  employed  in  the  capacity  of  teacher.  From  1893  to  1905  he 
taught  in  the  parish  schools  under  direction  of  the  Brothers,  in 
the  cities  of  Chicago,  111.,  and  San  Francisco,  Stockton  and  San 
Jose,  California.  For  three  years  (1905-1908)  he  was  instruc- 
tor in  the  normal  department  of  his  community.  From  1908  to 
1914  he  was  principal  of  St.  John  the  Baptist  School,  New  York. 
In  January,  1915,  he  entered  the  Catholic  University  of  America, 
and  the  following  year  (1916)  received  the  degree  of  Master  of 
Arts.  He  has  pursued  courses  in  Education  under  Drs.  Shields 
and  McCormick;  Philosophy  under  Dr.  Turner;  Apologetics  under 
Dr.  Aiken;  French  under  Professor  Teillard;  and  German  under 
Dr.  Gleis. 

The  writer  avails  himself  of  the  opportunity  to  acknowledge 
his  indebtedness  to  all  these  for  the  constant  and  generous  as- 
sistance given,  especially  to  Dr.  McCormick,  under  whom  the 
major  course  was  followed,  and  who,  in  the  preparation  of  this 
dissertation,  has  been  most  helpful  by  his  friendly  criticism  and 
valuable  suggestions. 


104 


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